THE 



FOUNDING OF METALS: 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON 

The Melting of Iron 

WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE 

FOUNDING OF ALLOYS; 

ALSO, 
OF ALL THE METALS AND MINERAL SUBSTANCES USED IN THB 

ART OF FOUNDING. 

COLLECTED FROM ORIGINAL SOURCES, 



BY 

EDWARD KIRK, 

PRACTICAL FODNDKYMAN AND CHKMIST. 



Twenty-one Illustrations. 



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SHARON, PA. 

1877. 



oi WASH 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, 
. By EDWARD KIRK, 
In the office of the Libi-ai-ian of Congress at Washington, 






OnAr.r.Es Van BF.NTHUYf?RN & Sons, 

Printers, Biiidcra and Paper Manufacturei'S, 
Albany, N Y. 



/ 




PREFACE. 



In ten years spent at molding-, and in the foundry business, 
and four years in traveling through the United States, in intro- 
ducing a chemical flux", for iron, I have seen the lack of regular- 
ity, and the bad effects of it, in the construction and manage- 
ment of foundry cupolas and furnaces, and the want of a guide 
or rule for their construction and management. At the earnest 
solicitation of many foundrymen, I have undertaken the publi- 
cation of this small work, with a view of throwing some light 
upon the subject of melting iron, and the construction and man- 
agement of cupolas and furnaces — a subject that always seems 
to be enshi'ouded in mystery. 

All the theories that I have advanced in this work, are from 
notes taken from practical observation, while visiting diiferent 
foundries, in the flux business, and from a chemical knowledge 
of the laws of combusti(/n and heat, as well as of the laws of 
chemical affinity of one element for another. By giving a few 
explanations of causes and effect, I hope to establish some regu- 
larity in the melting of iron for foundry purposes. 

I have also added a few recipes for the forming of alloys, 
and a general description of all the metals, minerals and gases 
used in the art of founding, as well as their application, all of 
which I have endeavored to place before the reader, clothed in 
popular language, so that all who can read may fully understand 
this interesting subject ; for this reason, I have endeavored to 
avoid using any of the chemical and technical terms which are 
usually applied to this subject, as they often have a tendency to 
embarrass, rather than to enlighten, the reader. 

THE AUTHOR, 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Iron 1 

Mixing and melting irons. ... 14 

Hard iron 19 

Hard and soft iron 21 

Soft iron 22 

Burnt irons 23 

Shot-iron 24 

Shrinkage of iron 26 

Coal 26 

Large coal 27 

Small coal 27 

CoKe 28 

Coal and coke 29 

Charcoal 29 

Cupolas 30 

Construction of cupolas 31 

The foundation 31 

Bottom plate 32 

The iron bottom 33 

Caisson or shell 33 

Cupola stack 34 

The scaffold 35 

Charging-door 35 

Elevators 36 

Scales 37 

Lining 38 

Fire-brick 39 

Tuyeres 40 

Different shaped tuyeres 41 

Capacity of copolas 44 

High and low cupolas 44 

McKenzie cupola 48 

Return-flue cupola 49 

Straight cupolas 50 

Daubing the cupola 52 

Swivel cupola 56 

The sand bottom 58 

Front or breast 59 

Two fronts or breasts 59 

The spout 60 

Stopping bods 60 

Stopping or bod sticks 61 

Tapping bars 61 

Lighting the fire 62 

Charging with coal 63 

Coal melters 64 

Charging with coke 65 

Coke melters 65 

Fig-ii-on 66 

Pressure of blast 66 



Page. 

Dumping the cupola 67 

Fire in the dumps 67 

The dumps 68 

Pig-mold for over-iron 68 

Combustion and heat 69 

The melting point 72 

Blast machines 76 

The atmosphere 78 

Fluxes and fluxing 79 

Limestone flux 80 

Oyster-shell flux 82 

Fluor-spar flux. 82 

Marble spalls flux 82 

Patent fluxes 82 

Charcoal flux 83 

Potato flux 83 

Clean iron and sound castings 83 

Polling iron 84 

Slag 84 

Daubing for ladles 85 

Ladle rest 86 

Percentage of fuel. . . .' 86 

Percentage of fuel and cast- 
ings 96 

Iron lost in melting 98 

Melters 102 

The old melter 103 

Practical and scientific melt- 
er 105 

Smart- Alic melter 107 

Hot-blast cupolas 112 

Reverberatory furnaces 115 

Your neighbor and you 119 

Scraps 122 

Malleable iron castings 123 

The founding of alloys ... 131 

Metals and recipes for alloys 133 

Alloys of iron 134 

Platinum alloys 136 

Gold alloys 13() 

Silver alloys 137 

German silver alloys 138 

Bismuth alloys 139 

Brass alloys 140 

Lead and copper alloys 141 

Bronze alloys 141 

Bell -metal alloys 143 

Type-metal. 144 

Lead alloys 144 

Spelter-solder alloys 145 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Hard-solder alloys 146 

Soft-solder alloys 147 

Babbit anti-friction metal . . . 147 

Fluxes for alloys 148 

Black flux 148 

Nature and character of al- 
loys 149 

Fusibility of alloys 151 

Brass furnaces 155 

Crucibles 157 

Cupel 161 

Blow-pipe 161 

Brazier's hearth 163 

Burning together 165 

Hard-soldering 166 

Soft-soldering 171 

Table of metals 176 

Gold 178 

Silver 185 

Platinum, palladium, rhodi- 
um, iridium and osmium. . . 188 

Platinum 188 

Palladium 189 

Rhodium 190 

Iridium 190 

Osmium 190 

Mercury 191 

/ Copper 192 

Zinc 194 

Tin 196 

Lead 198 

Nickel 199 

Antimony 200 

Bismuth 201 

Arsenic 202 

Manganese 202 

Magnesium 203 

Alluminum 203 

Chromium 204 

Cobalt 204 

Potassium 204 

Sodium. 205 

Minerals AND GASES 207 

Fuels 207 

Mineral charcoal 208 



Page. 

Anthracite coal , 208 

Brown coal 209 

Bituminous coal 210 

Peat 214 

Clay 214 

Fire-clay 215 

Loam 216 

Potter's clay 217 

China clay 218 

Soap-stone , 219 

Asbestos 219 

Sands 221 

Calcium 222 

Marble 224 

Lithographic stone 224 

Pummey-stone 225 

Silicon 225 

Barium 225 

Emery 226 

Garnets 226 

Amber 227 

Alum-slate 227 

Asphaltum 228 

Sulphur 229 

Phosphorus 230 

Petroleum 231 

Boron 233 

Iodine 233 

Chlorine 233 

Bromine 231' 

Fluorine 234 

Salt 234 

Oxygen 235 

Hydrogen 238 

Nitrogen 239 

Carbon 242 

Atmosphere 250 

Water 253 

Combustion 260 

Spontaneous combustion .... 264 

Bronzing 265 

Zincing 268 

Blacking iron castings 269 

Recipes for working steel . . . 270 

Cement 271 



IRON. 



The metal (iron) has been known from the very re- 
motest ages of the world ; for we read in the scripture 
that Tubal-Cain was an instructor of every artificer in 
brass and iron. We read of iron in almost all of the 
ancient histories, except the history of the ancient 
Greeks. At the very earliest period of their history 
they do not seem to have known of the existence of* 
iron, — far less the methods of working iron ; yet we 
read of iron in the histories of nations that were before 
the ancient Greeks ; and there is good reason to believe 
that, anterior to the earliest historical records of the 
Greeks, iron and the processes of working it were known 
in China and Hindostan. Yet, notwithstanding the 
fact that iron has been known from the very remotest 
ages, it does not seem to have been in general use in 
ancient times ; for in ancient history, as well as in the 
Bible, we read of very few purposes to which iron was 
applied; for all the tools, cooking utensils, and arms 
and implements of war of the ancients seem to have 
been made of brass or bronze, and alloys of different 
metals. "Whether the ancients did not know the value 
of iron, or whether they '' went in " for the more showy 
alloys of metals is not known ; but for some reason the 
art of working iron was not cultivated by any of the 
ancient nations as was the art of making alloys of 



2 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

brass, bronze, etc. ; and all of the ancient nations seem 
to have understood to perfection the art of making and 
hardening brass and bronze, — an art that has been lost 
to modern nations. Yet, while we have lost the art of 
hardening bronze, we have discovered the art of hard- 
ening and tempering iron or steel, — an art that does 
not seem to have been known to the ancients ; and the 
art of hardening and tempering iron or steel is of more 
importance to modern nations than the art of hardening 
bronze. 

Although the metal (iron) has been produced from 
some of the several metalliferous sources from the earliest 
historical periods, yet new methods of working it, and 
new sources from which to obtain it, have multiplied so 
much in modern times as almost to rank in importance 
with the discovery of the existence of a new metal. 
Iron has been discovered in all parts of the world in 
large quantities, and is manufactured and worked by 
all civilized nations. The abundance of iron every- 
where indicates how indispensable the Creator deemed 
it to the education and development of man. There is 
no California of iron ; each nation has its own supply. 
Iron has come into such general use in modern times 
that the development of the iron resources of a country 
may readily indicate the advancement of a nation ; for 
iron has become the symbol of civilization ; its value 
in the arts can be measured only by the progress of the 
present age, in its adaptation to the useful arts ; it has 
kept pace with the scientific discoveries and improve- 
ments, so that the uses of iron have become universal ; 
it is worth more to the world than all the other metals 
combined. We could dispense with gold and silver, 
for they largely minister to luxury and refinement ; but 
notwithstanding their nobility, they must yield the 
palm to iron, which represents solelj'"the honest industry 
of labor. Iron is fitted alike for the massive iron can- 
non, for the great Atlantic cable, and for the watch 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 6 

screws, so tiny that they can be seen only by the micro- 
scope, appearing to the naked eye like grains of black 
sand. For the last century almost all of the civilized 
nations of the world have seemed to vie with each other 
in the production of iron ; and to this fact we owe all of 
our modern improvements in the manufacture and work- 
ing of iron. In these new inventions and improvements 
the Americans have kept pace with the world ; and why 
should we not keep pace with, or lead the w^orld in the 
productions of iron ? for our resources of iron ores and 
fuels are unlimited, and all that is necessary is to de- 
velop them. 

Iron is sometimes found native, but it is a mere curi- 
osity of no practical value whatever. Meteors, contain- 
ing as high as ninety-three per cent, of iron, associated 
with nickel and other metals, have fallen to the earth 
from space. Iron is found in combination with almost 
all of the known elements, and in all parts of the 
world ; ic is found in our blood, in the blood of animals, 
and in the ashes of plants. Many minerals contain it 
in considerable quantities ; and in fact there are very 
few minerals entirely free from it.' But the principal 
source from which we obtain our supply of iron is from 
the oxides and carbonates of iron or iron ores. These 
ores are known by different names derived from their 
different chemical constituents, and from the different 
localities from which they are obtained ; as the red 
hematite, the brown hematite, the black band, the spar 
ores, the magnetic ore, the iron pyrites, the Lake Supe- 
rior ore, the bog ores, the Iron mountain ore, etc. All 
these ores contain more or less iron, locked up with 
oxygen in an apparently useless stone, and some of 
them are very rich in iron. The Iron mountain ore, 
which is found in the State of Missouri, is said to con- 
tain ninety per cent, of iron, and is the richest iron ore 
in the world. To obtain our supply of iron from these 
ores, we have only to separate the iron from its combi- 



4 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

nation with the non-metallic part of the ores. This is 
done by roasting and smelting the ores in blast-furnaces. 
These furnaces are of different sizes, and are called 
one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, and full stacks ; they 
are also divided into different grades, from certain obvi- 
ous peculiarities in their construction and mode of 
working, and fuel used, — as the cold-blast, the hot- 
blast, the charcoal, the coke, or the anthracite furnaces. 
From these peculiarities of the furnaces the iron pro- 
duced receives their different names, — as the cold-blast 
and hot-blast, charcoal irons, the coke iron, and the 
anthracite iron. The cold-blast furnace is a furnace 
that is blown \\A h a cold blast, or cold air. This class 
of furnaces always use charcoal fuel, and they produce 
the best class of iron for machinery or any heavy work 
that requires great strength, such as rollers for rolling- 
mills, cannon, shafts and cranks for machinery, etc. 
This class of iron, although it runs soft in any heavy 
casting, will generally run hard in light castings ; and 
it is never used in stove foundries, or in any foundry 
where light work is made. The cold-blast iron is the 
best iron for chilling, and is used in the manufacture 
of car wheels, crusher-jaws, and any castings that 
require a hard chilled surface. The hot-blast charcoal 
furnace is a furnace that uses charcoal as a fuel, and is 
blown by a hot blast. This furnace has an oven, filled 
with coils of pipe which are heated to redness. The 
cold blast is forced through these pipes, and then into 
the furnace ; and when it enters the furnace it is heated 
to redness, and is termed hot-blast ; and the products 
of this class of furnaces are termed hot-blast charcoal 
iron. This class of iron is the best iron that can be 
procured for general foundry purposes ; for it may have 
both hardness and softness, and it has great strength, 
but it has not got the chilling properties of the cold- 
blast charcoal iron. This class of iron is extensively 
manufactured in the south-eastern part of Ohio, along 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 5 

the Ohio river, in what is known as the Hanging-rock 
iron region ; and the iron produced is termed Hanging- 
rock charcoal iron. The furnaces in this region are all 
small furnaces ; in fact, all charcoal furnaces are small, 
none of them being over one-eighth or one-fourth stacks. 
The Hanging-rock irons are principally used for foun- 
dry purposes ; and in the foundries through the southern 
parts of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky there is very little 
iron used but the Hanging-rock irons. The coke fur- 
naces are the furnaces that use coke as a fuel. All coke 
furnaces are hot-blast furnaces ; this class of furnaces is 
principally located through Western Pennsylvania, and 
along the Ohio river, and through the Western States. 
The products of these furnaces are termed coke iron. 
This iron is sometimes used in foundries ; but the prin- 
cipal part of it is used in rolling-mills in making 
wrought irons. The coke furnaces are the largest fur- 
naces in this country. The Luey furnace and the Isa- 
bell furnace, at Pittsburg, are twenty feet in diameter 
on the inside ; these furnaces have each produced over 
a hundred tons of pig-iron every twenty-four hours. 
There is a very large coke furnace at Irington, on the 
Ohio river ; that was put in blast about two years ago ; 
this furnace is said to be the largest and best furnace 
in the world; it was built by the iron men of the 
Hanging-rock region. A man was sent all over this 
country and Europe to get all the modern improve- 
ments for it before its construction, and it has all the 
modern improvements combined, and is said to be per- 
fect. 

The anthracite furnaces are the furnaces that use 
anthracite coal as a fuel. All of this class of furnaces 
are hot-blast furnaces, and the product is termed an 
anthracite iron. This class of iron is extensively used 
in foundries, and is a good iron for stove plate and all 
kinds of light castings. The anthracite furnaces are 
principally located through the eastern part of Penn- 



6 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

sylvania, and in New York, New Jersey and Maryland, 
and are generally small furnaces. 

A great many improvements have been made in blast- 
furnaces in the last few years, and they have been 
brought to a state of comparative perfection; but most 
all of these improvements have been made with a view 
of increasing the yield oF iron from the ores and of mak- 
ing a cheaper iron. Most all of these improvements 
have had a tendency to deteriorate the quality of the 
iron rather than improve it, so that the foundrymen 
have a worse iron to work, to-day, than they had some 
years ago. 

To smelt iron from its ores, in the blast-furnace, the 
ores, fuel and limestone are put into the furnace together 
in layers or charges ; the fuel is to create heat and smelt 
the iron from the ores ; the ores are to produce the iron, 
and the limstone is to act as a flux and impart igneous 
fluidity to the non-metallic residue of the ores and fuel, 
and carry it out of the furnace in the shape of slag or 
cinder. Practice has demonstrated the fact that, by 
mixing two or more ores in the furnace, the impurities 
in one ore may be made to impart igneous fluidity to 
the non-metallic residue of the other, and furnaceraen 
have adopted the theory of using two or more ores, each 
having diff'erent chemical constituents, and in so doing, 
less limestone is required as a flux in the furnace. As 
the iron is smelted from its ores, it drops into the hearth 
or bottom of the furnace, and is drawn off in a channel 
cut in the sand in the floor of the casting-house, and 
from this main channel it is run into molds or pigs. 
As the iron chills in the mold it is called pig-iron or 
cast-iron, and the iron remaining in the large channel 
is called the sow-pig — hence the term pig-iron. 

There are a great many diff'erent varieties of iron ; 
the principal ones are cast-iron, wrought-iron and steel. 
The difference between these irons is caused by the 
different proportions of carbon and other impurities 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 7 

which they contain. Cast-iron or pig-iron is the form 
of the iron as it comes from the I last-furnace ; it is 
brittle and cannot be welded, and it is neither malle- 
able nor ductile. This iron expands at the moment of 
solidification, so as to copy exactly every line of the 
mold into which it is poured, and it contracts on cool- 
ing. These qualities fit it for casting into sand or other 
molds ; and these castings may be made so soft as to 
be easily filed or turned, or they may be made so hard, 
by chilling in an iron mold, that no tool will i ut them. 
Cast-iron contains from two to five or six per cent, of 
carbon, and as the carbon increases or diminishes, the 
iron becomes harder or softer, and is termed a No. 1, 
2 or 3 iron. That which contains the most carbon is 
the softest iron, but it is not always the strongest iron. 
As the carbon decreases, the cast-iron grows harder, ^ 
and after it gets past a certain point it grows weaker. 
Cast-iron is often combined with other substances as 
well as carbon ; it has a great affinity for sulphur, phos- 
phorus, silica, and other impurities; it is also often 
alloyed with manganese, forming speigel-eisen iron ; 
with chromium, forming chromic iron ; with copper, 
forming red-short iron ; with lead and other metals, 
forming cold-short iron. These alloys often cause 
cast-iron to be hard as well as brittle. 

Wrought-iron, as it is termed, is cast-iron that has 
been deprived of its carbon and some of its other impu- 
rities. This is done by burning the carbon from the 
cast-iron in a current of highly-heated air in a reverb- 
atory furnace. The iron is melted in the furnace, and 
is stirred and boiled up and exposed to the heated air 
by means of long puddling-bars, as they are termed. 
After it has been stirred and boiled until it ceases to 
be fluid, it is then worked into balls and is taken out 
of the furnace while white-hot, and crushed in the 
squeezers or under the trip-hammer, to force out the 
slag and convert it into blooms. It is then run through 



8 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

grooved rolls to bring the particles of iron nearer each 
other and give it a fibrous structure ; and by means of 
rolling, it is converted into bar-iron, sheet-iron, etc. 
It is then malleable and ductile, and can be forged and 
welded ; yet in bailling and puddling cast-iron to con- 
vert it into wrought-iron, it is impossible to separate or 
burn away all of the impurities, or other metals that 
may be alloyed with the cast-iron, so that, in wrought- 
iron as in cast-iron, we have three divisions of iron — as 
red-short, cold-short, and neutral-iron. The red-short 
iron is an iron that is brittle when red-hot, and strong 
when cold. This class of iron is not used for bar-iron 
or any other iron that requires to be heated or forged, 
but it is principally used for sheet-iron, cut-nails, etc. 
Cold-short iron is an iron that is brittle when cold, but 
.is very tough when hot. This quality fits it for forging 
better than any other iron, but as it has very little 
strength when cold, it is seldom used alone except for 
cheap grades of bar-iron. Neutral-iron is an iron that 
is neither brittle when cold or hot, but is between the 
extreme red-short and cold-short irons, and it is made 
by mixing the red-short and cold-short irons together. 
The neutral-iron is the best iron for all kinds of bar- 
iron, and all our best bar is made from it. 

Steel is an iron that contains less carbon than cast- 
iron, and more than wrought-iron. It is made by con- 
verting cast-iron into wrought-iron, and then adding a 
small percentage of carbon by heating wrought-iron 
bars in a box or oven surrounded by charcoal. These 
bars of carbonized iron are then melted in crucibles and 
cast into ingots, and are called cast-steel ingots ; hence 
the term cast-steel. It is said that the inventor of cast- 
steel was a watchmaker named Huntsman, who lived 
at Atterclitfe, near Sheffield, in England, in the year 
1760. He became dissatisfied with the watch-springs 
in use, and set himself to the task of making them 
homogeneous ; — if he could melt a piece of steel and 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 9 

cast it into an ingot, its composition would be the same 
throughout. He succeeded ; his steel became famous, 
and Huntsman's ingots were in universal demand. He 
did not call them cast-steel, for that was his secret. The 
process was wrapped in myster}^ by every means ; the 
most faithful men were hired"; the work was divided; 
high wages were paid, and stringent oaths taken. One 
midwinter night, as the tall chimneys of the Attercliffe 
steel works belched forth their smoke, a belated trav- 
eler knocked at the gate; it was bitter cold; the snow 
was falling fast and the wind howled across the moor. 
The stranger, apparently a common farm-laborer seek- 
ing shelter from the storm, awakened no suspicion ; the 
foreman of the works scanning him closely, at last 
let him in. He feigned to be worn out \vith cold and 
fatigue, and sank upon the floor and was soon seem- 
ingly fast asleep. That, however, was far from his 
intention ; he cautiously opened his eyes and caught a 
glimpse of the mysterious process ; he saw workmen 
clothed in rags, and wet to protect them from the tre- 
mendous heat, draw the glowing crucibles out of the 
furnaces and pour their contents into molds. Hunts- 
man's steel works had nothing more to disclose, and the 
secret of cast-steel was stolen. The value of steel de- 
pends largely upon its temper ; too much carbon causi^s 
steel to be poor and too much like cast-iron ; too little 
carbon causes steel to be like poor wrought-iron ; hence 
the importance of having just the proper amount of 
carbon. Steel is tempered by heating and cooling it 
suddenly by plunging it into cold w^ater, oil, damp sand 
or anything that will draw the heat from it suddenly. 
The workmen decide the quality of the temper by the 
color of the oxide that forms on the surface of the vari- 
ous kinds of work requiring different tempers. Cold 
chisels and machinists' tools require a straw-blue tint ; 
razors require a straw-yellow ; springs and swords, a 
bright blue, and saws a dark blue. 



10 BOUNDING OF IRON. 

In the last few years several new processes of making 
steel, direct from the pig-iron, have been introduced, 
and are now in operation. The principal process in use 
at the present time is the Bessemer process. This pro- 
cess of making steel consists in melting several tons of 
pig-iron in a cupola, and pouring it into a large con- 
verter, hung on two pivots, so as to be easily tilted. 
Air is driven into the converter through the bottom, and 
is forced up through the molten metal, causing it to 
bubble and boil, and producing an intense combustion. 
The roar of the blast, the hot, white flakes of slag, ever 
and anon whirled upward, the long flame streaming 
out at the top of the converter, variegated by tints of 
different metals, and full of sparks of scintillating iron, 
all show the play of tremendous chemical force. The 
operation takes about twenty minutes, when the iron is 
purified of its carbon ; and silex, enough speigel-eisen 
cast-iron — an iron rich in carbon and manganese — is 
then added to convert it into steel. Then it is poured 
out and cast into ingots. It is then hammered or rolled 
into any desired shape. The Bessemer steel is princi- 
pally used for railroad steel rails. 

Pure iron is far more rare and more difficult to obtain 
than absolutely pure gold ; it is only met with in chem- 
ical laboratories, and very seldom there. Wrought-iron, 
however, is considered as pure iron ; but it is only com- 
mercially pure, as it always contains more or less 
impurities. 

Cast-iron is iron combined with some four or five 
per cent, of impurities. Witl^ a view of getting rid 
of the four or five per cent, of impurities contained in 
cast-iron, and giving us a purer wrought-iron, the 
puddling process was invented by Richard Corts. The 
steam jet and atmospheric-air process was invented by 
Mr. Plant. The process of applying either air or steam 
from below was invented by Mr. Martin. The process 
of refining iron by a process of granulation was invented 
by Mr. Clay ; and several other processes of refining 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 11 

iron have been invented. The object of all these in- 
ventors has been to rob the cast-iron of its four or five 
per cent, of carbon, or impurities. That this four or 
live per cent, of carbon in cast-iron is not barren of all 
good results, will be seen by a consideration of the 
products made of cast-iron and wrought-iron respect- 
ively. Cast-iron, by losing its carbon, loses its fluidity, 
and wrought-iron is almost infusible ; yet, by virtue of 
its malleability and power of adhesion under the opera- 
tion of welding, wTought-iron may be converted into a 
multitude of useful forms. But if we look over the 
comparative numbers and variety of the products of 
cast-iron and wrought-iron respectively, and reflect on 
the advantages of the fluidity imparted to cast-iron by 
its impurities, we will rise from the survey with the 
conviction that the existence of these impurities in 
cast-iron is not without its advantages ; for to these 
impurities we owe the enormous development which 
the products of cast-iron have attained. If cast-iron 
was deprived of its carbon the genus of smelting and 
casting operations would all be gone ; and, instead of 
the facility wherewith the genus of our smelting and 
casting operations enable us to turn out enormous quan- 
tities of iron cast into the form required, every piece of 
manufactured iron would necessarily have to be manu- 
factured by the laborious operation of forging, ham- 
mering and welding; the price of iron for many purposes 
would be enhanced in value, and, for numerous pur- 
poses to which it is now applied, it could not be used 
at all. Imagine the pieces of cast-iron that constitute 
the anchors of the Brooklyn bridge, and contemplate 
the ]3rice of wrought-iron pieces of the same circumfer- 
ence, having the same weight, form and dimensions, 
hammered and welded into shape, instead of cast ; it 
would have been utterly impossible to have made them, 
notwithstanding the aid of our ponderous steam ham- 
mers. The ease with which a blacksmith heats, and 



12 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

welds, and fashions into shape upon his anvil the glow- 
ing wronght-iron, conveys but a feeble indication of the 
diificulties which beset the working of wrought-iron in 
large masses. It is difficult to establish the extreme 
limits or size of which a piece of wrought-iron admits 
of being forged ; but there is a limit reached by the 
failure of power to heat the mass of metal to the welding 
heat, and by the tendency of wrought-iron, in large 
masses, to crystallize and lose its fibrous structure when 
subjected to a long continuous heat. As has been inti- 
mated, almost all of the new inventions and improve- 
ments in the manufacture of iron have been introduced 
with a view^ of making wrought-iron or steel ; and the 
inventors of these processes have attempted to make 
almost every product of iron out of wrought-iron or 
steel ; and in some of these undertakings they have 
succeeded, and in others they have failed. In fact, 
they have failed or accomplished nothing in all cases 
where they have attempted to apply wrought-iron in 
large masses in place of cast-iron. It is true that 
wTought-iron* shafts, cranks, plates for gun-boats, etc., 
have been manufactured, and have given better results 
than the cast-iron of to-day would have done, but they 
are no better than the cold-blast charcoal iron of the 
past, or the cold-blast charcoal iron of to-day. Heavy 
cannon have been made of wrought-iron, but in almost 
every case they have proved failures. Steel cannon 
have been made, and several very large ones were on 
exhibition at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. 
These cannon are said to be superior to either the 
wrought-iron or cast-iron guns ; but they have not been 
brought into general use yet, and little can be told 
about them by the few that have been made as experi- 
ments ; but there is no doubt but what the steel gun 
can be made superior to the iron gun made from hot- 
blast iron ; for we can add enough carbon to steel to 
make it a refined cast-iron, and still be called steel. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 13 

The improvements in the manufacture of wrought-iron 
and steel have become matters of actual necessity ; for 
all the improvements in the construction of blast-fur- 
naces and the productions of cast-iron have had a ten- 
dency to make a poorer iron. When we had the char- 
coal iron it was a superior iron, aud it answered many 
purposes to which wrought-iron is now applied; but when 
the hot blast was introduced, aud the use of anthracite 
and bituminous coal or coke was adopted as a fuel, cast- 
iron no longer had the purity of the charcoal iron, but 
was deteriorated by the impurities contained in the 
fuel. Analysis of coal or coke-smelted iron demon- 
strated the existence of both sulphur and phosphorus 
incorporated with it ; the analysis also demonstrated 
that these impurities w^ere in direct proportion to their 
proportions contained in the fuel, and to overcome these 
impurities the manufacturers of wrought-iron have 
adopted new ways of working and manufacturing their 
irons. But the foundrymen have jogged along in the 
good old way, and took the pig-iron as they got it, and 
turned out castings accordingly ; and while the wrought- 
iron manufacturers have kept up the standard or im- 
proved the quality of their iron, the foundrymen have 
made a weaker casting, so that a great many things 
are now made of wrought-iron that were made of cast- 
iron in times past. When we look over the coun- 
try and survey the respective products of cast and 
wrought-iron, and see the hundreds of tons of castings 
that are turned out of our foundries daily, the enormous 
amount of stoves that are manufactured, and contem- 
plate the endless amount of trouble that the foundry- 
men have in getting an iron that will make a first-class 
casting, the question naturally arises : Why does the 
inventor not start at the blast furnace and improve the 
iron in the pig, instead of at the rolling-mill ? I see no 
reason why he should not, unless it is that the wrought- 
iron manufacturer is ambitious to make a good iron, and 



14 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

offers some inducements to inventors, while the foun- 
drymen are only ambitious to make a cheap casting and 
undersell their neighbors, and offer no inducements to 
inventors. 



MIXING- AND MELTING IRONS. 

The foundryman cares little or nothing for a chemical 
analysis of iron, which merely shows the exact amount 
of different impurities it may contain ; but the question 
that the foundryman asks, is : What irons can I work, 
and how can I mix them so as to produce a good, clean, 
strong and cheap casting ? This is a question that is 
almost impossible to answer, as it is impossible to give 
a complete vocabulary of all the impurities which iron 
may contain, with their effect upon the iron in different 
proportions, as these proportions may be varied in re- 
melting and produce different results ; and even if it 
were possible, the foundryman does not wish to go to 
the trouble of making a chemical analysis of every lot of 
iron he gets in, to ascertain its impurities and to keep 
track of how it may be mixed with some other lot of iron. 
Little can be told by looking at an iron in the pig, 
whether it will run hard or soft when remelted and run 
into castings, or whether it will mix with another brand 
of iron. The foundryman, or an expert, may by actual 
tests become acquainted with all the iron and ores used 
in a certain locality, and, by looking at the iron in the 
pig, tell very nearly what it will do when run into cast- 
ings ; but the best expert in the country can tell little 
or nothing about an iron that he has not been accus- 
tomed to working, and he will often be deceived in those 
he has been accustomed to, by merely looking at the 
iron in the pig. True, he may make a good guess, and 
he may tell whether an iron will run extremely hard 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 15 

or soft, but that is all that can be told by the looks of 
an iron in the pig. 

It is impossible to qualify the various kinds of pig- 
iron brought into the market by local terms and marks. 
It would not, after all, be of any use, because the fur- 
nacemen may change their ores or their mode of charg- 
ing the stock, and change the product of the furnace 
from a No. 1 iron to No. 2, or even No. 3 iron, which 
makes a great ditference in its application in foundries ; 
or a furnace may change the quality of its iron without 
any change of the ores, and without any apparent cause 
for the change in the quality of iron. When operating 
at Lewdsburg, Pa., last spring, I found a lot of pig-iron 
that was made at the Dry Valley Furnace, Pa. This iron, 
when remelted and run into a cylinder head that was 
nearly two inches thick, was so hard that it could not be 
drilled, yet the iron in the pig was of a dark-gray color 
with a large open crystal, and to all appearance was a 
No. 1 soft foundry iron. This iron was made from the 
same ores that the furnace had been using for years. In 
making a No. 1 foundry iron, no change had been made 
in the mode of stocking the furnace, and there was no 
apparent cause for the change in the quality of iron. 
This furnace, after it had been in blast for a short time, 
got to working so badly that it became necessary to 
blow it out. It was then found that when putting the 
furnace in blast, it had scaffold on one side, which 
was the cause of the hard iron. If a blast furnace, with 
the fire only on one side of it, will change the nature 
of iron as this furnace did, then a cupola, with the fire 
or the blast all on one side of it, 'will change the nature 
of iron when remelted. I have seen two cupolas melt- 
ing the same iron, and one produced good soft, strong 
castings, and the other produced hard or brittle cast- 
tings. I have always found that the cupola that 
produced the hard or brittle castings, either had the 
blast all on one side of it, or that the fire was not 



16 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

burnt up evenly, and that the stock was not charged 
regularly. 

Cast-irons admit of a division into three classes and 
seven grades. The three classes are : the red-short, the 
cold-short, and the neutral-iron. The seven grades are 
the seven qualities or seven numbers of iron, as No. 1, 
No. 2, or No. 3. Red-short iron is an iron that has no 
strength when red-hot, aud has a great deal of shrink- 
age. An extreme red short iron will shrink as high as 
one-fourth of an inch to the foot. Red-short iron, when 
used for casting pipe on their end, will cause the body 
of the pipe to shrink down and leave the bowl of the 
pipe before the iron has thoroughly set ; and when used 
in other castings, such as grate-bars, it will tear off and 
form cracks in the corners while hot : it will cause 
chill-cracks on the tread of a car wheel, but they are 
not deep and do not injure the wheel. Red short-iron 
may be either hard or soft, and is liable to go to ex- 
tremes either way. It never breaks from shrinkage 
when cold. 

Cold-short iron is an iron that has no strength when 
cold, and has very little shrinkage ; it will resist very 
little strain, and if the patterns are the least bit out of 
proportion the casting will break from shrinkage after 
it is cold ; it will cause stove-plates to crack under the 
sprews. Cold-short iron may be either hard or soft, and 
is liable to go to ex remes either way ; but it never 
breaks from shrinkage when hot. 

Neutral-iron is an iron between the extreme red- 
short and cold-short irons ; it is made by mixing the 
red and cold-short irons together. A neutral-iron is the 
best iron for foundry purposes, and furnacemen who 
make a business of manufacturing foundry iron make 
it a point to mix their ores so as to make as near a 
neutral-iron as possible. Yet in some localities one ore 
may be cheaper than another, and it may be used to 
excess, which may make an iron inclined to be either 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 17 

red-short or cold-short, yet not extreme either way. 
The foundryman that is using three different brands of 
iron may find at times that he has two brands of iron 
inclined to be (;old-short, and one brand inclined to be 
red-short. If these three irons are mixed in equal pro- 
portions they will make a casting inclined to be extreme 
cold-short. Yet one-fourth of the two brands and one- 
half of the third brand, mixed together, may make a 
neutral-iron and a good strong casting ; or by leaving 
out one of the brands, and using one-half of each of the 
other two brands, the same results may be attained. 
The only practical way to ascertain whether an iron is 
either red-short or cold-short, is by actual tests in mixing 
and melting the iron in different proportions, and test- 
ing the strength and shrinkage. A neutral-iron should 
not shrink more than one-eighth of an inch to the foot. 
Stove-foundrymen should be careful to use as near a 
neutral-iron as possible, and to change their brands of 
iron as little as possible ; as the changes of iron often 
change the shrinkage, and will make trouble in mount- 
ing the stoves when much odd plate is kept on hand. 
When new brands of iron are introduced, test bars 
should be made to ascertain the shrinkage, and the 
different brands of iron should be varied so as to keep 
the shrinkage as near alike as possible. 

The same theory may be followed in mixing irons to 
make a soft iron, thus : three brands of iron, mixed in 
equal proportions, may make a hard iron, while any 
two of the same brands, mixed in equal proportions, may 
make a soft iron. Tests were made last fall at Perry 
& Co.'s stove works in melting the three brands of iron, 
viz.. Crane, Hudson and Jagger. These three irons 
were melted at the rate of fifteen per cent, of Hudson 
to eighty-five per cent, of Crane and Jagger together. 
This mixture made a hard iron. One-third of each 
brand was then melted together, and made a hard iron. 
0n3-half Hudson to one-fourth Crane and one-fourth 
9 



18 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

Jagger were then tried, and the result was a hard iron. 
The Hudson and Crane were then tried together — one- 
half each — and made a good soft iron. The Hudson 
and Jagger were then tried together — one-half each — 
and made a good soft iron. The Crane and Jagger 
were then tried together — one-half each — and made a 
hard iron. Thus the Hudson would neutralize either 
the Crane or Jagger separately, but would not neutral- 
ize them when put together in any proportion. 

Iron will combine with almost all of the sixty-four 
known elements; and these elements, combined with 
irons in different proportions, will destroy the affinity 
of one brand of iron for another; and foundry men, in 
mixing their iron, will generally use equal proportions 
of all the brands of iron that they are using ; thus one- 
half, one-third or one-fourth of each brand. If the 
castings come hard, they will reduce the No. 2 and 
increase the No. 1 iron ; and I have often seen foun- 
dries that were using all No. 1 iron, that were still 
troubled with hard iron. This was because they were 
using irons that had no affinity for each other, and 
would not unite so as to form a homogeneous iron ; and 
throwing out the No. 2 iron gives only a temporary 
relief by the excess of carbon in the No. 1 iron, over- 
coming the non-affinity of the irons ; and if the No. 1 
iron happened to be a little poorer, one day than 
another, the iron was hard and uneven. I have often 
seen foundrymen that had one brand of iron in their 
yard that they had had on hand for years, and could 
not use it ; and perhaps the next foundryman that I 
would meet would be using that same brand of iron, 
and could not get along without it. This was because 
the one foundryman was using other iron as a mix that 
had an affinity for that particular brand of iron ; or the 
two foundrymen might be using the same iron as a 
mix, and mixing them in different proportions, which 
produced different results. Two poor irons can often be 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 19 

mixed together so as to make a good iron ; as is the 
case in mixing the extreme red-short and cold-short 
irons which forms a neutral iron that is superior to 
either the red-short or cold-short irons for foundry pur- 
poses. In mixing irons, I should recommend mixing 
them, and varying the mixture by the local brands or 
marks, and not by the numbers of the iron. To make 
a good iron, at least one-third of No. 2 iron should be 
used ; and if all No. 2 irons can be used and make a soft 
iron, they will make a superior casting to all No. 1 
iron. In melting iron I should recommend melting it 
hot, and as fast as possible. A quantity of molten iren 
should be kept in the cupola, or in a large ladle, so as 
to give the different brands of iron a chance to mix. 
In most all the foundries at Wheeling, West Va., the 
cupolas are never stopped in from the time the blast is 
put on until the bottom is dropped. A large ladle is 
set on trestles in front of the cupola, in such a manner 
that the iron can run into it from the cupola, and be 
poured out into the smaller ladles at the same time. 
The iron is all run out of the cupola as fast as it is 
melted, and is mixed in the large ladle. I think this 
is a^ good way of mixing irons. See Alloys. 



HARD IRON. 

Most every foundryman is troubled more or less with 
hard iron, especially if they are manufacturing light 
castings. Hard iron is sometimes caused by using a 
poor quality of iron in the first place, or poor fuel, or by 
using too much shot-iron, or rusty scrap. The damp- 
ness in the sand bottom will cause the first iron to be 
hard. Iron boiling in a green ladle will be hard if run 
into light plates. Sand worked too wet, or rammed too 
hard, or spunged too much, will cause hard iron. Thus 



20 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

hard iron may be traced to a great many causes ; but 
the principal cause of hard iron, when good stock is 
used, is the unscientific way in wh'ch cupolas are con- 
structed and charged. It is a well-known fact that 
Nos. 1, 2 and 8 irons are made in a blast-furnace from 
the same stock, — the different grades of iron being 
caused by the different temperature at which the ores 
are melted. If a large cupola is constructed with only 
one tuyere the blast cannot be forced into it so as to give 
an even temper iture : or if the tuyeres are not placed at 
equal distances apart, or if they are so placed that one 
or two of them will take nearly all the blast, and the 
balance of the tuyeres get little or none at all (as is often 
the case), the result will be an uneven temperature in 
the cupola, and an iron hard and soft in spots. Cupolas 
are often charged with large coal in the bed, which 
forms large crevices between the lumps, through which 
the cold blast penetrates to the center of the cupola, and 
strikes the hot iron as it drops through the coal and 
chills and hardens it. The bed is often put in without 
any regard to whether it is level or not on top when the 
iron is charged. The first charge of iron is thrown in, 
and the second charge of coal in the same hap-hazard 
way. If the cupola is large, and many gates or sprews 
are used, they will probably all be found in a pile on 
the side of the cupola, where it is handy to throw them 
from where the man stands that shovels them in. The 
iron will invariably be higher just under the charging 
door than anywhere else. The coal or coke is thrown 
in, and, if small, will roll to the lowest place ; thus 
having a large body of fuel in one place and little or 
none in another place. This uneven charging makes 
an uneven temperature, and a hard and soft iron ; or 
the iron may be charged even, and each charge leveled 
up, and the coal put in on it in large lumps (as is often 
the case), so that the small amount used will not more 
than half cover the iron, and will not separate the 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 21 

charges of iron properly. The result is the same as 
when the charges of iron are not leveled up — an uneven 
temperature, and hard and uneven iron. I have seen 
two stove-plate foundries, in the same city, not more 
than two squares apart, melting the same brands of 
iron mixed in the same proportions, each using the 
same quality and same percentage of coal; and one 
foundry always had good soft iron, and the other one 
was always troubled with the iron running hard in 
spots. On examining the cupola, where the hard iron 
was made, I found it to be a round cupola four feet six 
inches in diameter, with a stack live feet or more in 
diameter. This cupola had five tuyeres ; one was di- 
rectly in front, and in line with the supply pipe ; the 
others were scattered around at irregular distances 
apart. The tuyere in front of the supply pipe was 
admitting almost as much blast into the cupola as all 
the other four tuyeres put together, especially towards 
the last of the heat, when the tuyeres became clogged 
up. The iron was put into the cupola in charges of 
4,400 lbs., and the coal in charges of 350 lbs. The coal 
was put in in large lumps, and was not near enough to 
cover the iron, or separate the charges of iron properly. 
The stack of this cupola was too large to concentrate 
and equalize the heat, the tuyeres were not arranged 
so as to give an equal amount of blast to all parts of the 
stock, and the coal was not charged even enough to 
give an even heat, and the iron was not melted at an 
even temperature, which was the cause of the hard 
spots. 



HARD AND SOFT IRON. 

When hard and soft iron are melted in the same 
cupola, as is often the case in jobbing and small foun- 
dri'^s, the hard iron should be melted first one heat, and 



22 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

soft iron first the next heat, as part of the last iron will 
always stick in the lining; and if the hard iron is 
melted last, and the soft iron first, the next heat the 
first few ladles will be more or less hard, from the small 
particles of hard iron remaining in the cupola from the 
former heat. 

Melting hard and soft iron in the same heat is a bad 
practice. 



SOFT IRON. 

To melt iron soft and even, with an even shrinkage, 
it must be melted at an even temperature, and the 
nearer we can come to a natural draft the better for the 
iron. The tuyeres should be put in at equal distances 
apart, and so arranged as to admit an equal amount of 
blast at each tuyere. The tuyeres should be of a size 
to correspond with the blast pipe from the fan or blower, 
and the fan or blower should be run to suit the cupola. 
A too sharp and cutting blast is injurious to the iron, and 
slow melting is equally injurious, so that we must have 
a mild blast and volume enough of blast to do fast melt- 
ing. The stack of the cupola should be small, and high 
enough to give the cupola a good, even draft ; the bed 
should be evenly lit up, but not burnt too much before 
the iron is charged. Small coal or coke should be used 
all through the heat, and each bed of coal or coke should 
be properly leveled up before the iron is charged on it ; 
so should each charge of iron be leveled up before the 
coal or coke is charged on it. The iron should be 
charged into the cupola from one to three hours before 
the blast is put on (according to the draft of the cupola), 
so as to have it heat up gradually and anneal. The 
iron should be put into the cupola in large charges, so 
as to give a good bed of coal or coke between the 
charges and separate them properly without using too 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 23 

much fuel. When different brands of iron are used, 
the cupola should never be tapped close, but a few hun- 
dred of molten iron allowed to remain in the bottom of 
the cupola so as to give the iron a chance to mix. 



BURNT IRONS. 

When in the malleable-iron business, I often tried to 
melt the annealing boxes in a cupola, with coke, after 
they had been burnt out, but I could never produce 
more than fifty per cent, of iron, and the iron produced 
was so mixed with slag that it could not be used 
for castings without remelting. The iron produced 
,was always white and hard. I made a test at the 
American Stove and Hollow-ware Company's foundry 
in Philadelphia, Pa., in July, 1874, in remelting an- 
nealing pots that had been used for annealing hollow- 
ware. These pots were about two inches thick ; they 
were charged in the cupola in the ordinary way, Le- 
high Valley coal being used as fuel. The result of 
this test was a product of about seventy per cent, of 
iron, which was so mixed with slag that it could not be 
run into castings ; the iron was also white and hard. 
The larger percentage of iron produced when remelting 
the hollow-ware annealing pots than was produced 
when remelting the malleable-iron annealing boxes, 
was caused by the hollow-ware pots being heavier and 
not so badly burnt, and not by the different fuels used 
in remelting. The best way that I have found for melt- 
ing burnt iron in a cupola is to put it in the cupola with 
the regular charges of good iron, a little at a time ; it 
will then act as a flux, and is better than limestone, 
especially if the iron is badly burnt ; but care should 
be taken to not use too much of it at a time, as it will 
harden the good iron if used in too large quantities. 



24 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



SHOT-IRON. 

Every foundry has more or less shot-iron, or fine scrap, 
from the rattle barrels and gangways. This class of iron, 
although made from the best of pig-iron, will run hard 
when remelted, and in some cases will not mix with 
other iron (especially if the shot is rusted), but will 
cause hard specks in machinery or heavy castings, and 
will often sandwich in stove plate or light castings, 
forming a plate hard in the centre and soft on each 
side. Foundrymen who run exclusively on first class 
work have considerable trouble in getting rid of this 
class of iron, and it is often thrown out in the dump 
rather than remelt it. I made a test in remelting shot 
iron at the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia, 
in June, 1874. In this test the shot-iron was put up in. 
wooden boxes, each box holding from seventy to eighty 
pounds ; one ton was then charged in a cupola, in the 
ordinary way, without any pig-iron or other heavy 
iron ; the result of this test was a white, hard iron when 
run into pigs, and a wastage of twenty-five per cent. 
I do not think that anything was gained by putting the 
iron in the wooden boxes, for the boxes were all burnt 
up before the iron even became hot. 

I also made some tests in melting shot-iron at a stove 
works in Louisville, Ky., in May, 1875. In these tests 
the shot-iron was charged on the first bed of coke, with 
a view of melting it first and using the iron for warm- 
ing the ladles, and then pouring it into the pig-bed or 
some heavy work. This way of melting the shot-iron 
was a success so far as getting rid of the shot and using 
the iron was concerned ; but it was found that the cin- 
der and dirt, mixed with the shot-iron, formed a coat- 
ing of slag and dirt over the bed and prevented the 
cupola from melting ; and a much larger percentage of 
fuel had to be used when the shot-iron was charged on 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 25 

the bed. Tests were made at the foundry of Perry & 
Co., at Albany, N. Y., in melting a lot of shot-iron that 
had got mixed with fine coal, and in order to separate 
the iron from the coal, they thought they w^ould burn 
the coal under their boiler and melt the shot-iron, and 
have it run through the grate bars into the ash pit, and 
collect it in pigs. With this view, a thin layer of fine 
coal and shot-iron was spread over the fire, and the 
furnace closed up and the blast put on. Mica had been 
put into the furnace doors, so that the effect of the heat 
upon the iron could be seen. The result of this test 
was, that w^hen the iron came near the melting point 
the small shot threw off beautiful fiery stars of all col- 
ors and shapes, making a beautiful fire- works; and in 
these fiery stars all the iron was converted into the 
black oxide of iron, so that not a particle of iron could 
be found either on the grate bars or in the ash-pit at 
the conclusion of the test. I have observed, in making 
tests to ascertain the percentage of iron lost in melting, 
that the percentage of loss was always greater when 
the shot-iron was charged through the heat ; and from 
different tests that I have made in melting shot-iron, I 
have concluded that it should not be charged on the 
bed or in the first of the heat, because more fuel will 
be required to make hot iron. It should not be charged 
in small quantities through the heat, for it is too much 
exposed to the gases of the cupola, and the oxygen of 
the blast converts it into the black oxide of iron, and it 
is lost. I find that the best results are produced when 
the shot-iron is charged in a large body, as it was at 
the Baldwin Locomotive Works ; it then lays compactly 
together and the heat melts it before the oxygen of the 
blast can convert it into an oxide. I think the best way 
for melting shot-iron in a cupola is to charge it after all 
the other iron has been charged into the cupola ; it then 
forms a cover over the iron and prevents the escape of 
the heat, and the loss by the wastage of iron may be 



26 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

made up by the saving of fuel. It also improves the 
quality of the shot iron to melt it at the last of the heat 
when the cupola is hot. Shot-iron, if melted and run 
into pigs, will mix with other iron w^hen remelted. 

Shot-iron has been melted in iron boxes or pots with 
about the same results as in the wooden boxes. 



SHRINKAG-E OF IRON. 

Irons will vary in shrinkage. Some irons will not 
shrink any, and others will shrink as high as a quarter 
of an inch to the foot. The average shrinkage, and the 
shrinkage always counted on in making patterns, is 
one-eighth of an inch to the foot. 



COAL. 



Lehigh Valley coal is considered the best coal for 
melting iron because it is harder than some of the other 
coals, and is more free from sulphur ; but coal from the 
Lackawanna Valley, and Schuylkill Valley, or Potts ville 
region, is also extensively used in the melting of iron 
in foundries. In selecting coal for the cupola, care 
should be taken to get as hard and solid a coal as pos- 
sible, and a coal that will not slack down when the 
heat strikes it. Most any of the anthracite coals can 
be used for melting iron in cupolas. When the coal is 
soft or poor, a much larger percentage of coal must be' 
used, and the charges of coal must be increased in 
weight towards the last of the heat, as will be seen 
by reference to melting done at the car worlds at Ber- 
wick, Pa., where the coal used was soft coal, from the 
Wilksbarre region. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 27 

LARG-E COAL. 

The majority of foundrymen and melters believe that 
it is impossible to melt iron without large coal, and they 
will always select the largest lumps they can get and 
put them in for the bed; some plate or other light 
scrap is then charged on the coal, to prevent it from 
being broken up by throwing in the pig or other heavy 
iron. This, they claim, makes a bed that will last 
longer and do better melting than a bed of small coal. 
The iirst charge of iron is put in on the bed, and then 
the second charge of two or three hundred of coal is put 
in in large lumps, as before, and probably will not more 
than half cover the bed of iron. The next charge of 
iron is then put in, and the next charge of coal in the 
same way, and so on. The blast is put on, and the cold 
wind finds the large openings between the large 
lumps of coal (which will naturally be formed by throw- 
ing large lumps of coal in a pile), and will penetrate to 
the center of the cupola before it becomes hot ; the iron 
is melted on top of the bed, and runs down through the 
large lumps of coal like water through a stone pile, and 
passes through the cold blast which is constantly coming 
in, and the iron is decarbonized, chilled and hardened. 
The "old-fogy " idea of using large coal for melting iron 
in cupolas is the cause of more hard and uneven iron 
than anything else. 



SMALL COAL. 

I have made some thorough tests in melting iron with 
different sized coal, and I have found that good melting 
can be done with any size if the coal is good. The Qgg 
size coal is a good size for small cupolas ; and what is 
known as grate or steamboat coal is the best size for 



28 FOUNDING 0£ IRON. 

large cupolas ; and I should recommend it for the melt- 
ing of iron in cupolas in preference to large coal for the 
following reasons : It will pack closer in the bed than 
large coal, and will last equally as long ; the blast wdll 
be heated before it can penetrate any distance into the 
cupola ; the iron, being melted on top of the bed, will 
be slowly filtered down through the bed, and will be 
purified and superheated before it reaches the sand 
bottom. The second charge, of two or three hundred of 
coal, can be spread over the charge of iron so as to 
completely cover it and separate the charges of iron, — 
thus making the iron melt at a more even temperature, 
which will make a softer and a more, even iron. A 
smaller percentage of coal will be necessary than when 
large coal is used. Foundrymen should be careful 
when using small coal to get the best hard coal, as it 
produces the best results. 



COKE. 



Coke is extensively used for melting iron in cupolas 
for foundry purposes through the Western and South- 
western States. Connelsville and Pittsburg coke is 
considered the best coke for foundry purposes. The 
Steubenville and other Ohio cokes are sometimes used 
for melting iron; but they contain so much sulphur 
that they cannot be used in melting iron for stove- 
plate or other light work, as the coke does not have 
body enough to give life to the iron, and the sulphur 
hardens it and makes it brittle. Gas-house coke is 
sometimes used for melting iron, and does very w^ell 
when it is made out of Connelsville or Pittsburg coal ; 
but it has not as much body as the Connelsville or 
Pittsburg coke, and more of it has to be used to give 
life to the iron. G-as-house coke, made from cannel 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 29 

coal, cannot be used for melting iron in cupolas. Poor 
coke will improve if left laying out in the weather for a 
long time. Wet coke seems to make hotter iron than 
dry coke. 



COAL AND COKE, 

When coke is used for melting iron in a cupola, a 
much larger heat can be melted than could be melted 
in the same sized cupola with coal. Coke will melt iron 
faster than coal. Coal or coke will make iron equally 
hot and fluid. Coal will make more slag than coke, 
and the cupola will be harder to pick out Avhen coal is 
used than when coke is used. Iron will take up sul- 
phur more readily from coke, and will be infused more 
from sulphur in coke than from sulphur in coal. Poor 
coke is worse than poor coal for melting iron. More 
blast is required for melting iron with coal than with 
coke. I have seen a great deal of melting done with 
both coal and coke, and I consider that equally as good 
melting .can be done with the one as the other. 



CHARCOAL. 

Charcoal will make iron softer, stronger, and more 
fluid than coal or coke. Yet, notwithstanding these 
facts, charcoal has, on account of being expensive, been 
generally abandoned as a fuel in the melting of iron in 
cupolas for foundry purposes, although it is still used 
in some parts of the country where w^ood is plenty, and 
coal or coke is expensive, or when the quality of the 
castings is more of an object than the expense of making 
tl\e,m. When charcoal is used for melting iron in a 
cupola, the cupola should not be as high as the coal or 



30 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

coke cupola. Three or four feet is the best height for a 
charcoal cupola. The iron should be charged in small 
charges, and a mild blast used. Only small quantities 
of iron can be melted at a time with charcoal fuel. 



CUPOLAS. 

The cupola furnace has almost entirely taken the 
place of the reverberatory furnace for melting iron in 
foundries, because they have the advantage over the 
reverberating furnace of melting either a large or small 
amount of iron, and of melting it faster and hotter, and 
with less fuel ; but iron melted in the cupola furnace 
will not make as strong or as sound a casting as iron 
melted in the reverberatory furnace. To overcome 
this disadvantage, the foundryman has adopted the 
theory that he will sell you a casting cheap ; and if it 
breaks, he will sell you another one cheap. The cupola 
furnace has been in use for a great many years, and is 
almost as old an invention as the reverberatory furnace. 
Cupolas were first built in England and in this country, 
with a stationary fire-brick hearth or bottom ; and a^ 
large opening was left in the front, through which the 
dump or refuse was drawn out with hooks in place of 
dumping it by dropping the bottom. The large open- 
ing in the front was filled in with sand or loam, and a 
plate fastened in front of it to prevent it from being 
blown out ; and the tap-hole was put in the same as at 
the present time. The old style draw cupola, as it is 
called, is still in general use in England; and some few 
are still in use in this country in some of the Southern 
States. I saw three of them in use in a foundry in 
Baltimore two years ago. But the draw cupola has, as 
a general thing, been replaced in this country by the 
drop-bottom cupola, which is an American invention. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 31 

With a view of making some improvement in cupolas, 
foundrymen have constructed them in all shapes, and 
of all sizes and forms, and tuyeres have been put in in 
different shapes for admitting the blast into the stock. 
I have shown or described some of the principal cupolas 
in use at the present time that I have melted iron in or 
seen it melted in ; but I do not consider any of the new 
style or odd-shaped cupolas superior to the common 
straight cupola for melting iron, or for economy in fuel. 
In order to do good melting in any cupola, the lining 
must be kept in proper shape, as explained farther on. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 

When constructing a cupola, the first and most im- 
portant thing is to decide where it shall be put. In 
deciding this question, there are two things to be con- 
sidered ; the first is, where will it be the handiest to 
get the iron and fuel to it ; and the next is, where will 
it be the handiest to get the iron away from it. The 
latter is by far the most important point to be con- 
sidered, especially in foundries where light work is 
made. It is easier to wheel pig-iron to a cupola than 
it is to carry molten iron away from a cupola ; and the 
cupola should be set as near the center of the foundry 
as }K)ssible, so that the iron can be carried away from it 
in all directions, and so make the distance to carry it 
as short as possible. 



THE FOUNDATION. 

A good, solid stone foundation should be put down 
for the cupola to stand upon. If the foundation is not 
solid, it is liable to settle when the weight of the cupola 



32 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

and stock comes upon it, and may crack the bottom 
plate, which will make trouble. The height that a 
cupola should be from the floor will vary according to 
the class of work that it is intended for. In stove-plate 
foundries, where the iron is all carried in hand ladles, the 
average height is from ten to twenty inches, and in ma- 
chinery foundries, w^here large ladles are used, the aver- 
age height is from two to three feet. When the cupola 
is very low, a pit should be put in, as shown in Fig. 10, 
so that the bottom can be dropped and the refuse taken 
away easily. This pit may be put in on any side of 
the cupola where it will be most convenient ; when put 
in front of the cupola, it may be covered with cast-iron 
plates, and the plates covered with a few inches of sand 
to prevent the iron flying, in case any is spilled. Cupo- 
las may be set on brick walls or on iron columns ; when 
the cupola is set high, the columns are the best, as they 
will last longer than brick, and are handier to get 
around. Care should be taken to not set the cupola too 
high, as the iron will sparkle and fly, in falling, into 
the ladles, and a great deal of it will be wasted in the 
course of time. 



BOTTOM PLATE. 

The bottom plate or ring upon which the cupola 
stands should be made of good, strong iron, and cast 
with strengthening ribs on it, so that it will not break 
when the weight of the cupola and stock comes upon 
it; for if the bottom plate once gets broken, it will 
always make trouble in putting up the doors and put- 
ting in the sand bottom, and make it more liable to cut 
through and run out. In small cupolas the bottom plate 
should only come flush with the insid.e of the brick 
lining, so as to allow the sand bottom to fall out easily 
when the door is dropped. In large cupolas the bottom 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 60 

plate should project three or six inches inside of the 
brick lining, so as to make the door smaller and easier 
to handle ; when the bottom plate projects inside of the 
lining, the lining should be arranged as shown in Fig. 
13, so as not to give the sand bottom too much bea.ring, 
and prevent it from dropping out easily. 



THE IRON BOTTOM. 

The cast-iron drop door, divided into two or more 
pieces, is generally used for the bottom ; it should be 
made as light as possible, so as to be easily raised. 
Wrought-iron doors are sometimes used on account of 
being lighter and easier raised ; they answer equally 
as well as the cast-iron doors. The door or doors should 
be supported by a good, solid prop under them, and 
not by a latch that is liable, to give way at any time 
and burn every one around the cupola. Slide bottoms 
are sometimes used for large cupolas ; these bottoms are 
divided in the centre and rest upon a slide at each end ; 
they are shoved forward into place with a bar and 
drawn back by a chain and windlass. The slide bot- 
tom makes a very good, safe bottom, but it is not always 
as convenient as the drop door. The iron bottom should 
be perforated with small holes, to allow the steam and 
gas from the sand bottom to escape without passing up 
through the molten iron. 



CAISSON OR SHELL. 

The caisson for cupolas should be made out of boiler 

iron, or heavy sheet-iron bars of angle iron should be 

riveted around on the inside of the caisson about three 

or four feet apart, so as to support the lining, and in 
3 



3-1 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

case part of it gives out, to admit of its being taken out 
and repaired without taking down the whole lining ; the 
angle iron also stiffens and strengthens the caisson, and 
is better than brackets. The old style, cast-iron stave 
caisson, with a brick stack, is still made and used in 
some parts of the country. They are more expensive 
than the boiler-iron caisson, and are not near so good, 
as the staves are liable to break from the expansion and 
shrinkage, and crack the lining and allow the blast to 
escape. The caisson should be well painted with coal 
tar, to prevent its rusting and make it last longer. The 
caisson will often rust through, and give way near the 
bottom in a short time. This is caused by the lining 
sweating and the moisture settling at the bottom ; and 
by putting in a heavy sand bottom and allowing no way 
for the moisture in the sand to escape, thi-s keeps the 
lower courses of brick always wet and damp, and the 
rust soon eats through the caisson. This trouble may 
be overcome by laying the first two or three courses of 
brick out one or two inches from the caisson, so as to 
fornf a small air chamber all around the bottom of the 
cupola. The bottom of the caisson should be perfo- 
rated with small holes to supply this chamber with fresh 
air, and allow the steam and moisture to escape. 



CUPOLA STACK. 

The diameter of the stack should not be more than 
one-half the diameter of the caisson, so as to concen- 
trate the heat. It should be drawn in just above the 
charging door, so as to throw the heat downward on the 
stock. The stack should be high enough to give the 
cupola a good and even draft ; a cupola with a good 
draft will melt better and make softer iron than one 
with a poor draft, for the nearer we can come to a nat- 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 6b 

ural draft the better for the iron. More power will be 
required to drive the fan or blower, when the cupola 
has little or no draft, for the blast has to be forced clear 
out at the top of the stack. 

I consider the stack one of the most important parts 
of the cupola. 



THE SCAFFOLD. 

The scaffold should be built large enough to keep 
stock sufficient for a rainy day or an accident, and have 
plenty of room to get around. The floor should be made 
of cast-iron plates, properly fitted together, so as to be 
fire-proof, and easy to shovel scrap or fuel off. The 
scaffold should be cleaned up, and the floor swept every 
day, so as not to get too much dirt and sand into the 
cupola. 



CHARG-ING-DOOR. 

The charging-hole should be large enough, and so 
arranged that the melter can throw in the iron with 
ease, and at the same time see where it lights and how 
it lays. The door should be made to fit close, and lined 
with fire-brick to prevent it from warping. A cast-iron 
door frame, filled in with fire-brick, makes the best 
door for a cupola. Two charging-holes are sometimes 
put in, in a large cupola (one on each side), for con- 
venience in charging the stock. Cupolas are arranged 
in this way at James L. Haven & Co.'s novelty foun- 
dry in Cincinnati, Ohio, and at Smith & Sons' pipe 
foundry in Pittsburg, Pa. Two charging-holes are 
generally put in, in all large cupolas where coke is 
used ^s a fuel. See Capacity of Cupolas. 



36 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



ELEVATORS. 



There are a great many ways of getting the stock 
upon the scaffold. At some foundries, the iron and fuel 
is all thrown upon a platform, and from there thrown 
upon the scaffold. This is a very poor way of getting 
up the stock, as it makes a great deal of unnecessary 
handling of the iron, and there is a great deal of the 
fuel wasted by being broken up fine, so that it is not 
tit for use in the cupola. Other foundries have a run- 
way, and wheel up all the stock in wheelbarrows. This 
Is a better way of getting up the stock than throwing 
it up ; but it is very hard work wheeling up iron, espe- 
cially if the run-way is very steep, as it generally is. 
In most of the large foundries they have steam eleva- 
tors for taking up the stock. These elevators are very 
handy, and take up less room than a run-way does, and 
the saving in labor will soon pay for the expense of 
the elevator. The expense of running an elevator is 
very little ; for they are only run for an hour or two 
each day. There are several different kinds of eleva- 
tors in use in foundries ; but the principal one in use 
is the common straight steam elevator. Where it is 
desirable to carry the iron some distance, as Avell as 
elevate it, other kinds of elevators are used. In one 
foundry that I visited, where the stock was all kept in 
the cellar, an inclined-plane elevator was used for 
taking the stock upon the scaffold. This elevator was 
made by running two endless chains over two shive 
pulleys at the top, and two at the bottom, and fasten- 
ing shelves or buckets on to the chains. The stock was 
put on at the bottom and dropped off at the top as it 
went over the shive pulleys. This makes a very good 
elevator, and is better adapted to some foundries than 
the straight elevator. In other foundries an inclined- 
plane railroad is used, with a car drawn up by a rope 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 87 

or chain. This style of elevating the stock is very good 
where it is kept in the yard, at some distance from the 
foundry, and where there is plenty of room ; but it is 
not so well adapted to foundries where room is an 
object. 



S CAL E S. 

A good pair of scales should be kept on the scaffold, 
and all the stock that goes into the cupola should be 
weighed accurately. The scales should be swept off 
after every draft, and kept in good order. Most foun- 
drymen think that any old scales are good enough for the 
scaffold, because they neither buy nor sell by them, 
but are merely dealing with themselves. It is very 
true that they are only dealing with themselves, and 
they are cheating themselves out of hundreds of dol- 
lars' worth of fuel every year. Some foundrymen do 
not have any scales at all on the scaffold, but depend 
upon the melter guessing at everything he puts into 
the cupola. G-uessing at the amount of stock charged 
is often the cause of slow melting, of dull iron, of irregu- 
lar melting, of running short of iron, and of burning 
out the lining in a short time, etc. There is not a 
foundryman in the country, who depends upon the 
melter to guess at the weight of the stock he charges, 
but what could save enough in one year to buy two or 
three pair of good scales by having his stock accurately 
weighed. There is nothing gained by having a good 
pair of scales on the scaffold, unless you see that the 
stock is carefully weighed, and no more fuel used than 
is actually necessary. 



38 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



LINING-. 

A two-inch lining is heavy enough for a small cupola, 
and six or eight inches is heavy enough for any size 
cupola. In laying up a lining, the brick should be 
fitted closely together, so as to use as little mortar be- 
tween them as possible ; for, if too much mortar is used, 
it will crumble and fall out when the heat strikes it, 
and will leave openings through which the blast will 
escape. The best way to lay up a lining, is to have a 
bucket full of thin mortar or grout, and dip each brick 
into it as it is laid up. Each course of brick should be 
grouted between the brick and the caisson as soon as it 
is ksid ; if you do not grout between the brick and the 
caisson until two or three feet of brick have been laid 
up, the grout may not run down to the bottom, and will 
make a poor lining. When the lining is built three or 
four inches from the caisson, it may be filled in with 
molding sand properly tempered for molding, and 
rammed in solidly. This sand is better than grout, for 
it will not crack when it dries, as grout will. Stone 
lining should never be put in, except when it is impos- 
sible to get brick, as they are expensive to la.y up, and 
cannot be laid without using a great deal of mortar, 
which will soon fall out irom the excessive heat, and 
the stone will crack from being suddenly cooled when 
the bottom is dropped. Common brick will stand the 
fire better than stone ; the softer brick should be used. 
The lining should project out one or two inches just 
over each tuyere, to prevent the molten iron from drop- 
ping into the tuyeres. Some melters think that the 
caisson is air-tight, and the blast cannot escape, and it 
does not make any diff'erence if it does get out through 
the lining. These melters should remember that they 
are not trying to melt down the Iming, but the stock, 
and all the blast that escapes up through and back of 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 39 

the lining, is cut off from the stock and is lost. A good 
fire-brick lining should last from one to two years, 
according to the amount of iron melted and the way 
the lining is daubed and kept up. There is nothing 
gained by keeping a lining in too long, as it will be- 
come shaky, and the blast pass up through and behind 
it instead of passing through the stock, and more fuel 
is required to make hot iron. 



FIRE-BRICK. 

For lining cupolas and furnaces, the selection of a 
proper description of fire-brick is a matter of consider- 
able importance, and the foundryman should be careful 
to select the best brick regardless of expense, for a few 
dollars more on the thousand is nothing when compared 
with the consequences of using cheap and inferior brick, 
which would be costly at any price. From the great 
w^ear and tear upon them, and from the delay and loss 
caused by the often-repeated stoppages for repairs, it is 
the wisest and the best economy to always use the best 
fire-brick that can be procured. I shall not enter into 
the merits of the fire-brick manufactured by different 
companies, but I should recommend the use of the white 
or softest brick as being the best for standing the fire ; 
and in lining up a cupola, the softest brick should 
always be selected for the bottom, where the heat is 
greatest, and the hard ones for the top, where the lining 
is liable to be struck and broken by throwing in the 
iron and fuel. The wedge or circular brick is better 
for lining cupolas than the straight brick, as they can 
be laid closer together and require less mortar, and will 
make a better and more solid lining that will last 
longer. 



40 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



TUYERES. 



The tuyeres in a cupola should be put in at equal 
distances apart, and they should be arranged so that 
each one of them will admit an equal amount of blast 
into the cupola. A tuyere should never be put into a 
cupola directly over the tapping hole, and if the tuyere- 
is a continuous one, as is the McKenzie, it should be^ 
stopped up over the tapping hole. The height of the 
tuyeres from the sand bottom will vary according to 
the class of work that the cupola is intended for. In 
stove foundries, where the iron is drawn out as fast as- 
it is melted, the tuyeres are put in very low ; but in a 
machinery foundry, where it is desirable to hold the 
molten iron in the cupola for a large casting, the tuyeres 
are put in higher ; but the low tuyeres are the best for 
making hot iron and for continuous melting. In all of 
our large stove-foundry cupolas the tuyeres are put in 
only two or three inches above the sand bottom, and in 
some of them the tuyeres are so low that the sand bot- 
tom is slopped clear up to the bottom of the tuyere. 
When the tuyeres are put in low, the melting point of 
the cupola is lower, and less fuel is required for the bed^ 
and the bed is easier to keep up in a long, continuous 
heat. The tuyeres should never be put in more than 
ten or twelve inches above the sand bottom, for the 
cupola will not make as hot iron, and it is almost impos- 
sible to keep the bed up for a long, continuous heat. 
The old style of having one tuyere hole above another, 
and raising the tuyere pipes as the cupola fills up with 
molten iron, and stopping up the lower tuyere holes 
with clay, has generally been abandoned as a failure ; 
for, after the cupola has been filled up with molten iron 
in this way, and the iron drawn out, the stock will gen- 
erally settle so that the cupola is of no account for fur- 
ther melting; and for a long, continuous heat it is 
better to draw out the iron as fast as it is melted, and 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



41 



hold it in a ladle, if necessary. I should recommend 
low tuyeres in all cases for making hot iron and saving 
fuel. The foundryman must use his own judgment 
as to how many tuyeres to put into his cupola, but he 
should put in enough to distribute the blast equally 
through the stock, and no cupola should have less than 
two tuyeres or one continuous one. 



Fig. 1. 



DIFFERENT SHAPED TUYERES. 

There are a great many different shaped tuyeres or 
openings in the lining for admitting the blast into the 
cupola, and I will now describe some of the principal 
ones in use that give good satisfaction. 
The oldest tuyere in use is the common round 
tuyere, and it gives good satisfaction when 
put in right. 

The tuyere (fig. 1) is a cast-iron frame, 
with a slot or opening in it two inches wide, 
by ten or twelve inches long. This tuyere 
was in use in Davis' stove foundry in Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio, in 1874, and gave good satisfac- 
tion. 

The T shaped tuyere (fig. 2) is a cast-iron frame, 
with a slot or opening at the bottom two inches wide 
by eight inches long, with an up- 
right slot two inches wide by ten 
or twelve inches long. This tuyere 
was in use in the stove foundry of 
Headway & Burton, in Cincinnati, 
Ohio, in 1875, and appeared to give 
good satisfaction. 

The tuyere (fig. 3) is a slot one 
inch wide, running one-third of the 
way around the cupola on each 
side, with four upright slots, each one inch wide and ten 
or twelve inches high. This tuyere may be made as a 



Fig. 2. 



42 



lOUNDlNG OF IRON. 



cast-iron frame, or be formed in the brick lining; it 
was in use in the foundry of Griffith & Wedg, Zanes- 
ville, Ohio, in 1873, and gave good satisfaction. A 



ri(i. 



cupola forty inches in diameter, with two of these 
tuyeres in, would melt five tons of iron per hour. 

The tuyere (fig. 4) is a slot tuyere one inch or more 
wide, and running one-third of the way around the 
cupola on each side ; or it may be connected and form 
a continuous tuyere all around the cupola. These tuy- 
eres are made by taking two iron plates and laying 
small blocks of iron between them, as shown in fig. 4. 



[ 



JZZ 



] 



Fig. 4. 



This tuyere was in use in a hollow-ware foundry in 
Allegany City, in 1874, and appeared to give good sat- 
isfaction. 

The tuyere (fig. 5) represents a tuyere that is in use 
in some of the foundries in Philadelphia and New 
York. It is said to give good satisfaction. 

The ti^yere (fig. 6) is an oval shaped cast-iron tuyere ; 

Ait is generally laid flat, as shown in fig. 6, and 
is made large or small, to suit the size of the 
cupola. This tuyere is in general use in the 
Troy and Albany stove foundries, and is said 
to be a good tuyere. 
\ / The tuyere (fig. 7) is the Lawrence patent 
V reducing tuyere. This tuyere is made of cast- 
FiG. 5. YVQYi^ and is a cast-iron frame with a large 
opening at the bottom, and an upright slot, reduced to 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



43 



nothing, at the top. The large opening is about three 
inches in diameter, and the slot is ten or twelve inches 
long. This slot is one inch wide at the bottom, and 
tapers to nothing at the top. This tuyere gives good 
satisfaction when it is in proper shape ; but the upright 
slot is liable to collapse from the heat, as it is too small 
to admit enough blast to keep it cool. This tuyere 
would do better if it was made of fire-clay. 

The tuyere (tig. 8) is a reducing tuyere, and is merely 
one round opening above another. They are put in two 
or more inches apart, and three or more may be put in, 



CD 




o 

o A 



Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 

ill a row, and each one gets smaller towards the top. 
This tuyere is used in the Truesdale patent cupola ; 
but I do not know whether Mr. Truesdale has a patent 
on the tuyere or not. 

The tuyere (fig. 9) represents a triangle-shaped tuyere 
that is used in some of the Cincinnati foundries ; it is a 
cast-iron frame, set in the brick lining, and may be 
made as an equal triangle, or it may be a little higher 
than it is wide, so as to bring it up to a sharp point at 
the top. I think this a good tuyere, for the sharp point 
at the top cuts the blast at the top, and it is not so 
liable to form a bridge over the tuyere as the round or 
oval-shaped tuyere is ; and I should recommend this 
tuyere in preference to all others, especially for small 
cupolas. 



44 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



CAPACITY OF CUPOLAS. 

There are so many things that control or affect the 
working of a cupola, and the melting of iron, that it is 
almost impossible to make any estimate of the size that 
a cupola should be to melt any given amount of iron. 
The shape of the cupola, the size and number o*f tuyeres, 
the pressure of blast, the height and draft of the cupola, 
the way in which the cupola is daubed and made up, 
the way the bed is burnt and the stock is charged, and 
the kind of iron melted, all make a difference in the 
melting capacity of a cupola. From practical observa- 
tions in melting with both coal and coke, I have made 
out the following table as an approximate of melting 
capacity, for the guidance of foundrymen who may 
wish to put up new cupolas. 





S 


o.a 


east amount 
should be 
melted. 


ay be melt- 
d with ease. 


ay be melt- 
ed by care- 
ful charg- 
ing. 


o" j Exti-eme melt- 
? 1 ing capacity. 


3J 

u 


ft 


^ 


02 


h; 


g« 


S 


H 








ton. 


ton. 


ton. 




15 


6 to 8 


15x18 




1 


H 


2 


I 


20 


8 to JO 


20x24 


1 


2 


3 


4 


1 


24 


9 to 10 


24x28 


2 


3 


5 


6 


1 
1 


30 


10 to 12 


28x30 


3 


5 


8 


10 


3 


40 


11 to 13 


28x30 


5 


9 


13 


16 


5 


50 


12 to 14 


30x36 


8 


14 


20 


23 


7 


60 


13 to 15 


40x30 


11 


16 


22 


25 


8 



Note — The pressure of blast depends upon the volume of blast. 

The above table of melting capacity is only intended 
for the common straight cupola. The diameters given 
are the diameters inside of the lining. A cupola should 
never be made less than fifteen inches in diameter ; for 
the stock will hang, and the cupola will bung up very 
easily, and will be more bother than it is worth. If a 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 45 

cupola is over sixty inches in diameter it should be 
drawn in at the tuyeres, as the McKenzie and Law- 
rence cupolas are, so as to throw the blast to the centre 
of the stock. I do not consider the melting capacity of 
a cupola to be the largest amount of iron that can pos- 
sibly be forced through it in any shape, but the amount 
that can be melted with ease, and the cupola left in 
good shape when dumped. 



HIGH AND LOW CUPOLAS. 

From the bottom plate to the bottom of the charging- 
door is the height of the cupola, and the top of the 
charging-door is the bottom of the stack. It is claimed 
by some of the theory-melters that five feet is too great 
a height for a cupola, and that the best and most eco- 
nomical melting can be done in a cupola of three or 
four feet in height ; they claim that there is no other 
advantage in having a high cupola than having a large 
body of fuel on fire at once ; this they claim may be 
effected to more advantage by a greater diameter, and 
that the low cupolas, even as low as three feet, do bet- 
ter melting than high ones. This theory may be very 
good for small cupolas, where it is only desirable to run 
off a heat of a few hundred of iron, but it will not do 
where it is desirable to run off* a large heat in a few 
hours and make hot iron. Just imagine some of our 
large stove foundries, that melt as high as twenty tons 
of iron in one cupola, melting that amount of iron in a 
cupola only three feet high ; it would be utterly impos- 
sible to run off a heat in any reasonable length of time, 
or to make hot iron. If we increase the diameter of 
the cupola too much, the blast cannot be forced into 
the centre of the stock, so that we cannot gain the same 
advantages that we could by increasing the height of 



46 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

the cupola ; yet I think this theory of low cupolas and 
large diameters is the correct theory for building small 
cupolas ; for, if we build a cupola of a very small diam- 
eter and great height, the stock is liable to hang on the 
lining, and we cannot force it down ; but if the cupola 
is low and of a large diameter, it- will not be so liable 
to hang, and if it does hang, we can poke it down with 
a bar ; and I think that a cupola with a small diameter 
should be low, and its height increased as the diameter 
is increased. I have found, by accurate comparative 
tests in melting with coal and coke, that high cupolas 
do faster and more economical melting than low ones, 
because more stock can be put into them at once, and 
it will be getting hot from the heat that otherwise 
would escape up the stack ; the iron will be hot and in 
a better condition to melt when it comes down to the 
melting point, and it will make a softer iron ; there will 
be more of a downward pressure, and the blast will be 
more confined, and the heat concentrated If the cupola 
is low, we cannot put so much stock into it at once, 
and there will be less of a downward pressure ; the 
blast will not be confined, but will pass through the 
stock, carrying with it a great deal of unconsumed 
gases, and more fuel and more time will be required 
to make hot iron. I found, by careful tests made in 
Philadelphia, Pa., in 1874, that a cupola forty-five inches 
in diameter and fourteen feet high, would melt as 
much iron in an hour (with one per cent, less coal), arid 
would run off as large a heat as a cupola sixty inches 
in diameter and ten feet high, with the same pressure 
of blast. 

I found by careful tests made in St. Louis, Mo., in 
1875, that a cupola fifty inches in diameter and thir- 
teen and a half feet high, would melt fifteen tons of 
iron (with one per cent, less coke), in the same time that 
a cupola fifty inches in diameter and nine feet high 
would melt ten tons of iron with the same pressure of 



FOUNDING OF IRON, . 47 

blast. The above tests were not made in any one foun- 
dry, but were comparative tests between one foundry 
and another, and go to show why one foundry can sell 
castings cheaper than another. 

T should recommend high cupolas in all cases where 
the diameter is large, and more especially where coal is 
used for fuel in melting ; for coal will break and spall 
off when suddenly heated. This fine coal or spall will 
settle down through the stock (especially if the coal 
used in melting is large), and is not burnt, but will set- 
tle down and lay over the tuyres, an will gather cinder 
and prevent the cupola from melting ; and when the 
cupola is picked out, thesie small pieces of coal will be 
found mixed with the cinder, appearing as if they never 
had been touched by the fire. It is impossible to en- 
tirely overcome this mechanical destruction of the coal, 
but it may be overcome to a certain extent by high 
cupolas ; for, if the cupola is high, more stock can be 
put into it at once, and the coal will be heated up grad- 
ually and will not be so liable to crack and fly from the 
heat. On the other hand, if the cupola is low, very 
little stock can be put into it at once, and after the blast 
is on for a short time, the stock becomes hot clear up to 
the charging-door, and the next charge of coal is struck 
by an intense heat as soon as it is thrown in, and it 
cracks and flies, and we have a mechanical destruction 
of the coal in place of a chemical combustion. While I 
would recommend high cupolas for melting iron with 
coal, I would also caution the foundryman against too 
great a height, for we may get a cupola so high, that 
throwing in the iron will damage the coal more than 
heating it suddenly would do. A few plates should 
always be put in on top of the coal, to protect it from 
being broken up by throwing in the heavy iron. 



48 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

Mckenzie cupola. 

Fig. 10 represents a sectional view of the McKenzie 
patent cupola. This cupola is generally made oval in 
form instead of round; the lining is contracted just 
above the tuyeres, and is supported by an apron bolted 
on to the caisson. This apron projects inward and 
forms an opening or air chamber all around the cupola, 
as indicated by B B. This air chamber is supplied 
with air from the blast pipes, D D ; the tuyere is a con- 
tinuous one, and is merely an open slot, about two 
inches wide, running all the way around the cupola, as 
represented by the letters AAA. This tuyere is sup- 
plied with blast from the air chamber, B B. This 
cupola is in use in a great many foundries, especially 
in stove-plate foundries, and it will do very good melt- 
ing when kept in proper shape, as shown in Fig. 10, 
but is very liable to get bridged out or collect cinder 
over the tuyere ; and if the melter does not keep the 
cinder chipped off, it will soon get the lining in the 
shape shown in Fig. 11, which shape will reduce the 
melting capacity of the cupola and cause it to bridge 
over in a short time. To avoid this, the melter should 
be careful to keep the lining in as near the shape shown 
in Fig-. 10, as possible. Small cupolas, constructed on 
the McKenzie plan, are generally a failure on account 
of bridging over above the tuyere, and even the large 
ones have in some cases been condemned on that ac- 
count ; but the large McKenzie cupolas will work well, 
if kept in proper shape, but where this style of cupola 
will not work well, the apron can be taken out and the 
cupola made into a common straight one. I have seen 
one of these cupolas at the Greenwood Stove Works, in 
Cincinnati, Ohio, out of which the apron had been taken 
and six round tuyeres put in,- one at each end and two 
on each side at equal distances apart ; this arrangement 
worked better in this shop than the apron and continu- 
ous tuyere. 




Pig. 10. 




Fig. 11. 




Fig. 12. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 49 



RETURN-FLUE CUPOLA. 

The return-flue cupola, Fig. 12, was arranged and 
erected by Mr. John O'Keefe, superintendent of Perry & 
Co.'s Stove Works at Albany, N. Y., with a view of 
saving fuel and catching the sparks from the cupola. 
With this view, the arch A was built across the cupola 
just above the charging-door, so as to throw^ the heat 
down upon the iron, and the flue B was led out of the 
cupola just under the arch A, and brought down to the 
floor and returned to the cupola above the arch, and 
when the cupola was in operation all the waste heat 
from the fuel passed up and struck the arch A, and was 
again thrown* down on the iron or forced through the 
flue B, as indicated by the black dart. At the bottom 
of this flue it turned as indicated by the white dart, 
and passed up the flue C, and again entered the cupola 
above the 'arch A. As the flame passed down the flue 
B, and turned to pass up the flue (7, all the cinders and 
sparks were deposited at the bottom of the flues, and 
were removed through the door or opening D as often 
as it became necessary. This cupola was a success so 
far as the catching of the sparks was concerned, but 
little or no fuel was saved by it ; for, after the arch had 
been put in, the cupola threw the flame out at the 
charging-door when the blast was on, so that it was im- 
possible to charge the stock, and it became necessary to 
make a small opening through the top of the arch J., 
so as to admit of the escape of part of the flame. Had 
this cupola been high enough, so that all the stock for 
the heat could have been charged before the blast was 
put on, and the charging-door closed up tight, there is 
no doubt but what considerable fuel would have been 
saved by this arrangement. Several diff'erent kinds of 
spark-catchers have been used for cupolas, but this one 
is the best I have seen in use. A cheap spark-catcher 
4 



50 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

for a cupola can be arranged by taking a round cast- 
iron plate nearly as large in diameter as the diameter 
of the stack, and hanging this plate in the stack near 
the top of it ; the sparks go up and strike the plate, 
and are again thrown down into the cupola. This j^late 
will be burnt up in the course of time, and must be re- 
placed by a new one ; but when a cupola is constructed 
as shown in Fig. 13, no spark-catcher is needed. 



STRAIG-HT CUPOLAS. 

I have seen and melted iron in almost all of the odd- 
shaped cupolas that are in use at the present time, but 
I have not found any of them superior to the common 
straight cupola, either for fast melting or for economy. 
It is true that some of these cupolas require a little less 
fuel for the bed than the straight cupola does; but what 
is saved in the bed has to be added to the charges in 
a large heat, so that nothing is saved in the long run. 
Yet to do good melting, either in an odd-shaped cupola 
or a straight one, the lining must be kept in proper 
shape. 

In fig. 13, I have represented my idea of a perfect 
cupola for melting iron. In this illustration I have 
shown how the bottom plate should project inside of the 
lining in a large cupola, so as to make the bottom doors 
smaller and easier to handle. I have shown how the 
lining should be sloped out to the edge of the bottom 
plate, so that the sand bottom will all fall out when the 
iron bottom is dropped. This offset also helps to sup- 
port the stock, and takes part of the weight off of the 
iron bottom. The caisson or shell of a cupola will often 
rust off, and give way around the bottom. This is 
caused by the lining sweating, and the moisture settling 
to the bottom, and by putting in a heavy sand bottom, 




C)U»^U.Ut.LBnJUl» 



Fig. 13. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 51 

and providing no way for the moisture in the sand to 
escape ; this moisture keeps the lower courses of brick 
always damp, and causes the caisson to rust off in a 
short time. I have shown in this illustration how this 
may be avoided by laying the first two courses of brick 
out one or two inches from the caisson, so as to form a 
small air-chamber all around the cupola, as represented 
by the letters A A. Small holes should be put in 
around the bottom of the caisson, or through the bottom 
plate, to supply this chamber with fresh air, and allow 
the moisture to escape. In this illustration, I have 
shown a triangular-shaped tuyere ; this shaped tuyere, 
I think, is the best in use, especially for a small cupola; 
for it comes up to a sharp point at the top, and is not 
near so liable to bridge over as the round or oval-shaped 
tuyere. I have shown a hollow place in the lining of 
this cupola, just above the tuyeres, which indicates the 
melting point of the cupola. If a cupola is lined up 
straight, it will burn out hollow at this point in one or 
two heats ; and in daubing up the cupola for a heat, it 
should never be daubed up straight or too full at this 
point, but should be left a little hollow, as shown in 
fig. 13. I have shown how brackets or angle iron should 
be riveted on to the caisson every three or four feet, so 
as to support the lining, and admit of the lower part, 
where the lining burns out the fastest, being taken out 
and replaced without taking down the whole lining. 
The lining can be taken out and replaced without the 
brackets by taking out one side of it at a time, and re- 
placing it with the new lining before taking out the 
other side ; but after a lining has been taken out and 
replaced in this way it always settles, and cracks, and 
injures the lining. I have shown how the stack should 
be reduced to one-half or less the diameter of the 
cupola, and how it should be drawn in by an arch just 
above the charging door. I think that a cupola con- 
tracted suddenly, as this one is, is better than to have 



52 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

a long-tapered contraction, for in this cupola the heat 
conies up and strikes the arch, and is thrown down on 
the iron; The sparks strike this arch, and are not so 
liable to be carried out at the top of the stack as in a 
long contraction by reducing the diameter of the stack. 
In this way the heat is more confined and equalized, 
and will make a more even iron than a cupola with a 
large stack, where the heat escapes freely up the stack. 



DAUBINa THE CUPOLA. 

The most important thing in the melting of iron in 
cupolas is the proper construction of the cupola ; and 
the next important thing is to keep the lining in proper 
shape. I have shown, in fig. 13, what is the proper 
shape, — which is a slight projection over each tuyere, to 
prevent the iron from dropping into the tuyere, and a 
hollow in the lining, or increased diameter of the cupola 
just above the tuyeres. This hollow place in the lining 
may be a little higher than I have shown in this illus- 
tration, as explained under the head of " The Melting 
Point ;" but in putting in a new lining, it is not neces- 
sary to form this hollow in the lining, for the heat will 
soon cut it out at the melting point ; and in daubing 
and making up the cupola for a heat, the lining should 
always be left slightly hollow at this point, as shown in 
fig. 18. 

Some melters, who do not thoroughly understand 
their business, think that, when the lining burns out 
hollow at the melting point, they must make it up 
straight with daubing, or the lining will burn through, 
and the iron will run out through the caisson ; and they 
will daub on a belt of mud two or three inches thick all 
around the cupola, as shown in the sectional view of a 




;^V-i\.UK\.B,l«», 



Fig. 14. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 53 

cupola (fig. 14). This belt of mud is not only made 
flush with the lining, but it often projects out farther 
than the lining, and by it the diameter of the cupola is 
decreased at the point where it should be the largest. 
The daubing for cupolas is generally made of common 
clay, mixed with a little fire-sand or sharp-sand. This 
daubing will not resist the heat like fire-brick or fire- 
clay, and the heat is more intense at this point than 
at any other in the cupola ; and this daubing, if put 
on too thick, will melt and be converted into a cinder 
or slag ; and this slag will run down and be chilled 
over the tuyeres by the cold blast, and will bung up 
the cupola in a short time ; or this mud belt may break 
loose from the lining, as shown in fig. 15, which illus- 
tration represents a sectional view of the interior of a 
cupola that I saw at Richmond, Indiana, in 1875. This 
cupola was about thirty or thirty-five inches in diame- 
ter, and the average heat melted in it was about four 
tons ; the melter, in charging, used too much coke in 
the bed and between the charges of iron. This caused 
slow melting, which was very hard on the lining, and 
cut it out badly at the melting point ; and when chip- 
ping out, and making up the cupola, the melter would 
chip out all the cinders and slag until he came to the 
brick, and in knocking ofi" the cinders he would jar and 
crumble the face of the brick ; he would then daub on 
a belt of mud two or three inches thick all around the 
cupola, as shown in fig. 14. This mud was too heavy 
to hang on the brick, and when it was heated slowly 
the moisture was all forced back against the brick 
lining, which moistened the mud at that point, and 
caused it to break away from the lining ; and it would 
then settle down in a heap over the tuyere, as shown 
in fig. 11 ; but when it was heated rapidly, the heat 
would bake the outside of it and prevent it from squat- 
ting down in a heap. The moisture in the mud was 
converted into steam, and was forced back against the 



54 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

brick, where it would be partially condensed ; and the 
water would soften the mud, and the steam would force 
it off from the lining at the top, and the fuel and iron 
would get down behind the mud and force it down into 
the cupola, so as to bridge it over above the tuyeres. 
One day, while I was at this foundry, the cupola melted 
very slow, and when the heat was about half off the 
iron began to run out at one tuyere, and no iron at all 
could be gotten out at the tap-hole. The cupola con- 
tinued to melt in this way for a short time and then 
stopped altogether; and the bottom was dropped. On 
examining this cupola the next morning, I found it to 
be in the shape shown in fig. 15. The belt of mud had 
broken loose at the top from the brick lining, and the 
fuel and iron had gotten down behind it, and forced it 
down into the cupola, so that it formed a complete 
bridge over it just above the tuyeres, with only a small 
opening in the centre; All the fuel around this open- 
ing had been consumed, and the iron came down and. 
lodged on this bridge of mud; and it was here struck 
by the cold blast, and the melting stopped. On the 
one side the bottom of this mud belt still hung to the 
lining, but on the other side it had broken loose alto- 
gether, and had sank down below the top of the tuyere 
and on this side some little iron had been melted above 
the mud bridge, and came down and run out at the 
tuyere. This melter always had trouble in dumping his 
cupola, and he generally had to poke and pry at it with 
a bar for one or two hours every heat before he could 
get it down ; and sometimes he would have to work at 
it until eight or nine o'clock at night. All his trouble 
was caused by too much daubing. The lining would 
be cut in holes every heat, and the melter had to put 
in a few new brick after each heat. All these holes 
that were cut in the lining were caused by using too 
much daubing, and the daubing breaking loose from 
the lining and settling down in such a shape as to 




Fig. 15. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 55 

throw the blast and heat against the lining in spots, 
instead of having an equal heat all around. 

This cupola had to have about two or three feet of 
new lining put in, just above the tuyeres, every two 
weeks, and the melter, to protect this new lining, would 
always daub an inch or two of mud upon it ; this mud, 
instead of protecting the lining, was the cause of its 
burning out, for it would break loose from the new 
lining and settle down so as to prevent the free work- 
ing of the cupola, and concentrate the heat upon the 
lining and melt it down instead of melting the iron. 
The melter in this foundry had made the propri- 
etor believe that the cupola was too small to melt four 
tons of iron, and that it was worn out, which was 
the cause of all his trouble with it, when really the 
whole trouble was, that the melter did not understand 
his business, and his ignorance was costing him a 
great deal of extra labor and costing the foundry com- 
pany five dollars or more every day for extra fuel, fire- 
brick and clay. Yet the lining of a cupola will be 
burnt out at the melting point a little every heat, and 
If the melter does not replace it, it will burn through to 
the caisson and the iron will run out through it. To 
prevent this, the melter must have recourse to daubing, 
but he should be careful not to use too much or too 
little daubing, and he should keep between the two ex- 
tremes, and to do this, he should not daub on more than 
a half inch or an inch of daubing at any one place, and 
if this amount of daubing will not keep up the lining, it 
cannot be kept up by putting on more than that amount ; 
for after he gets beyond that amount, the daubing is too 
heavy to hang on to the lining, and it breaks loose and 
does more harm than good ; even one inch of daubing 
is too much to put on all around the cupola. When 
chipping out the cupola, the melter should not chip out 
all the cinder until he comes to the fire-brick, but he 
should merely chip out enough to get the cupola in 



5fi FOUNDING OF IRON. 

proper shape ; for this cinder has been oxidized by the 
heat, and in many cases it will stand the fire better 
than the new daubing. If a cupola cannot be kept up 
by putting on a small amount of daubing, then there is 
something wrong, and the melter should at once find 
out what the trouble is, which may be in his manner of 
charging in the tuyeres, or in the blast : for if the iron 
is charged high in the centre it will throw all the fuel 
to the outside, and will cut the lining worse than when 
charged level ; and if the stock is charged uneven, it 
may be the cause of cutting out the lining in holes ; if 
the blast is too sharp and cutting, it will be hard on the 
lining ; if the tuyeres are not put in at regular distances 
apart, they may cut the lining badly by throwing the 
blast and heat against the lining in spots. When the 
melter finds his lining hard to keep up, he should regu- 
late his mode of charging; if that does not do any 
good, then he should vary the blast ; if that does no 
good, then he should change the shape, size or place 
of the tuyeres. 



SWIVEL CUPOLA. 

The swivel cupola, fig. 16, is a very handy little 
cupola for small work, and is in use in a great many 
small foundries. In constructing this cupola, four 
iron columns are used to support the stack, which is set 
upon an iron plate on top of the columns. The stack 
may be made of boiler plate and lined with fire-brick, 
as shown in fig. 16, or it may be built of common brick ; 
two cross-bars are bolted on to the columns, and the 
cupola is hung on two swivels, which rest on the cross- 
bars ; the top of the cupola does not touch the plate 
upon which the stack stands, but is two or three inches 
below it, or low enough to allow the cupola to be turned 
over without striking the plate. This cupola may have 




Fig. 16. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 57 

a drop bottom or a stationary bottom with a brick 
hearth. When the bottom is stationary, the refuse may 
be drawn out at the front, or the cupola may be turned 
upside down and dumped. When the cupola is only 
fifteen inches or less in diameter, the stationary bottom 
is the best ; but when the cupola is over fifteen inches 
in diameter, the drop bottom is to be preferred. When 
the drop bottom is used for this cupola, it should be 
supported by a latch or cross-bar, and not by a prop, 
for the cupola may be rocked a little when charging the 
stock, and the prop will give way. The swivels or 
bearings should be bolted on to the cupola a little be- 
low^ the centre, so as to have the cupola as nearly bal- 
anced as possible when the iron bottom is on, so that the 
cupola will be easy to turn on the swivels. This cupola 
may be turned over by hand or by gear-wheels attached 
to the swivels. When the cupola is large, or where it is 
desirable to dump the refuse by turning the cupola up- 
side down when hot, the gear wheels should be used. 
As only a small amount of iron is melted in this cupola 
at a time, a two-inch lining is heavy enough for it. When 
picking out and making up the cupola for a heat, it 
may be laid over on its side and picked out with a long 
bar to avoid going into it. When it is desirable to melt 
more iron than the cupola is capable of melting, it may 
be run until bunged up, and then turned over and 
dumped, and picked out with a long bar while hot, and 
then turned up and fresh stock put in and the heat 
continued. This style of cupola should not be made 
more than twenty inches in diameter and six or seven 
feet high, as it would be too heavy to handle when 
lined. The swivel cupola is a very handy and conven- 
ient little one for melting small quantities of iron, and 
for mixing irons to test their quality, and no large foun- 
dry should be without one. Most of our large foundry- 
men have no small cupolas in their foundries, and when 
introducing new brands of iron they have to test their 



58 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

qualities in the large cupolas, and through an entire 
heat, and in this way whole heats of castings are often 
lost, which loss "might have been avoided by having a 
small swivel cupola and testing the quality of the iron 
on a small scale, before introducing it into the large 
cupola or through the entire heat. 



THE SAND BOTTOM. 

Sand gathered from the gangway is generally used 
for the bottom ; a little new sand is sometimes added 
to give it more strength. All new sand, sharp or fire- 
sand, should never be used for the bottom (especially 
in small cupolas), for it will bake in too hard and not 
droj) easily. Some melters prefer to gather the old bot- 
tom out of the pit and add a little new sand to it, and 
put it in again. This makes a very good bottom, as 
the sand from the old bottom will contain small parti- 
cles of cinderj which will make it open and porous and 
prevent it from baking in hard, and make it drop easily. 
The old bottom should always be put into a small cupola 
in preference to sand from the gangway ; the sand bot- 
tom should be put in so as to be high around the outside 
and have a gradual slope towards the centre and front. 
Care must be taken to not give it too much slope, as it 
will throw the iron out with too much force when tapped ; 
care must klso be taken to not get the bottom too flat, 
or the iron will not run out and will chill on the bottom 
and make dull iron. The thickness of the sand bottom 
will vary from two to ten inches, according to the size 
of the cupola. If the sand bottom is too wet it will 
make the first iron hard ; if it is not rammed even 
and packed solid around the edges, it may allow the 
iron to run out ; if it is rammed too hard the molten iron 
w^ill not lay upon it, but will boil and cut up the sand, 
and make a dirty iron, and it may cut through the sand 
and run out through the iron bottom. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 59 

FRONT OR BREAST. 

The front should be put in with sand or loam that 
will not bake in too hard, and will not cut nor crumble 
when the iron strikes it. A little fire-clay is sometimes 
used in the bottom of the spout and around the tap- 
ping hole, to prevent the tapping hole from cutting out 
and getting too large. The front should not be more 
than one and a half inches thick at the tapping hole, 
or the iron will be liable to chill in the tapping hole 
between taps. When the lining of the cupola is very- 
thick, the brick should be cut away around the front on 
the inside, so as not to have the sand front too thick. 
8ome melters put in their front before the fire is lit ; 
this answers very well when the cupola is large and the 
tuyeres are low down, but it will not do in a small cupola 
with high tuyeres. Coke melters build up a wall of 
coke in front of the fire and ram the sand against it ; 
this makes a very good front. Some coal melters cut a 
piece of board the proper size, with a notch in the bot- 
tom of it, and set the board back against the hot coals, 
and ram the sand against the board ; this makes a very 
nice front, for the board soon burns out and dries the 
front, and leaves it straight and even on the inside. 
Most melters ram the sand back against the hot coals, 
and pay no attention to the inside of the front ; this 
should never be done, for the front will be rough and 
uneven on the inside, and will cut and crumble with 
the heat and iron. This way of putting in the front is 
often the cause of dirty iron and of slag running out at 
the tapping hole. 



TWO FRONTS OR BREASTS. 

In some of the large stove foundries in Troy and 
Albany, N. Y., two fronts are put in their large cupolas. 
They are both put in on one side of the cupola, about 



60 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

ten or fifteen inches apart. This is done for safety. 
They are tapped turn-about, and it is claimed that the 
tapping hole can be kept in better order, and in case 
one tapping hole gets in a bad shape, it can be stopped 
up altogether and the other one used. I think that 
putting in two fronts in this way only makes more work 
for the cupola-tenders, and more expense for loam or 
sand, without gaining anything ; for the tapping hole 
will never get in a bad shape if the front is put in right 
and is tapped right ; and if it does get in a bad shape, 
it is an easy matter to stop the blast a few minutes and 
fix it or put in a new front. In the foundry of James 
L. Haven & Co., in Cincinnati, Ohio, two fronts are put 
in their large cupola, one on each side ; this is done for 
convenience in carrying away the iron, and not for fear 
of the tapping hole giving out, or on account of fast 
melting. 

THE SPOUT. 

The spout may be made up with the same kind of 
sand or loam as the front or breast is put in with. It is 
a good idea to paint the spout with a little blacking 
mixed with water ; this prevents the iron from sticking 
to the sides of the spout. The spout may be dried by 
the flame blowing out at the tapping hole before the 
iron comes down. If an iron plate is laid on top of the 
spout while the flame is blowing out, the heat will be 
more confined and the spout more thoroughly dried. 
Building a big wood fire on top of the spout to dry it, 
is an old-fogy idea, and the man that invented it died 
a long time ago. 

STOPPING- BODS. 

Molding sand, mixed with a little clay-wash, makes 
a very good bod that is easily tapped out. When fire- 
clay, or other heavy clay, is used for bods, a little 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 61 

blacking or sawdust should be mixed with it, so as to 
make it tap easily. The blacking or sawdust will soon 
burn out and leave the bod porous, and it can be easily 
cut away. The first bod for stopping in with should be 
sharp-pointed, so that it can be shoved well back in the 
hole, to prevent the iron chilling in the hole before the 
front has been thoroughly warmed up. After the front 
and bottom have been thoroughly warmed, the bod 
should be made round, so as not to shove it back into 
the hole too far, and to make it tap easily. Care 
should be taken to have the bod-clay thoroughly mixed, 
and not too wet nor dry. Tappers often lose their eyes 
or get badly burnt by the careless way in which they 
mix and handle their stopping bods. 



STOPPING- OB BOD STICKS. 

. The tapper should have at least three bod sticks — 
one good large one — always ready in case of accident. 
Bod sticks are generally made of all wood ; but some 
prefer an iron rod, from six to twenty inches long, with 
a button on one end and a long wooden handle on the 
other. This makes a good bod stick, where a long 
spout is used ; for the iron rod will not burn away, as 
the wood will do from the heat in the spout. A bod 
stick made in this way may be used for years. 



TAPPING- BARS. 

The tapper should have at least three tapping bars ; 
one a one-half inch, one a three-fourths inch, and one 
an inch in diameter. They should be long enough, 
so that the tapper can stand back from the cupola, and 
not be in danger of getting burnt every time he taps 



62 FOUNDING 0I< IRON. ^ 

out. The bars should be drawn down to a long square 
point, so that the bod can be cut away by turning the 
bar, and leave a nice, smooth, clean hole. If the tap- 
ping bar is round and blunt on the end, the bod will be 
shoved into the cupola, and the molten iron, running 
out, will force it back into the hole, and prevent the 
iron from running out freely. 



LIG-HTING- THE FIRE. 

Too much care cannot be taken in starting the fire in 
the cupola ; for the fire in the bottom of the cupola is 
the foundation upon w^hich the iron is melted. The 
theory of starting the fire in any shape, and depending 
upon the blast to equalize it, is wrong. My experience 
is, a poor fire on the start makes poor iron all through 
the heat. The wood to light the coal or coke with 
should be cut in lengths of from ten to eighteen inches; 
and two or three rows of wood should be set upon end 
around the sides of the cupola, so as to protect the dob- 
bing- and 2:ive the fire vent. The centre should be 
filled in with short wood, so arranged as to give the fire 
the best possible chance to burn. The w;ood, when all 
in, should be level and even on top. When the wood is 
cut short, and put in the cupola in this way, one-third 
less will be required, and the coal or coke will be lit 
more even, and better melting can be done than when 
the wood is put in long and uneven. Gas-house coke 
is sometimes used wuth wood for starting the fire w^hen 
coal is used for melting; this is done for economy. 
Less wood is required when the gas-house coke is used, 
and the coke is often cheaper than the wood. Some 
melters put their wood into the cupola in the regular 
cord-wood lengths, and throw it in in any shape. The 
coke or coal is put in, and will roll down through the 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 63 

wood and lay on the bottom ; the fire is lit, and the 
wood is all burnt out, and the coke or coal is only lit in 
spots, and probably there will be a pile of coke or coal 
lay on the sand bottom under the tuyeres that is not 
lit at all until the iron is melted and runs through it. 
This careless way of starting the fire is often the cause 
of dull iron and slow melting. 



CHARG-ING WITH COAL. 

After the wood has been put into the cupola in the 
proper shape, the coal for the bed should all be put in 
before the fire is lit, except a few pieces to level up 
with after the wood is all consumed and the coal al- 
lowed to settle. After the wood has all burnt out and 
the bed has settled, the top of the bed, when all in, 
should not be more than twelve or fourteen inches above 
the top of the tuyeres. No regular time can be set for 
charging the iron, for the cupola will have a better 
draft on one day than another ; and care must be taken 
not to get the bed burnt too much before the iron is 
charged. When the wood is entirely consumed, and 
the bed has settled and burnt through, so that the fire 
can be seen on the top of the bed, it is time to charge 
the iron. A few plates or other light scraps should be 
put in on the coal, to prevent it from being broken up 
by throwing in the heavy iron, and to prevent it from 
settling down into the bed, as it will do if the coal used 
for melting is small. The pig-iron should be charged 
with the face or top of the pig down, and the ends out 
towards the lining, as it will melt better than if charged 
with the side of the pig flat up against the lining, with 
the coal only on one side of it ; it should be charged as 
compactly together as possible, so as to utilize all the 
heat from the coal, and not allow it to escape up the 



64 • FOUNDING OF IRON. 

stack. Each charge of iron should be level on top, and 
not high in the centre, as it will throw the coal and 
heat to the outside, and will cut the lining of the cupola 
more than if charged level ; it should be charged in as 
large charges as the cupola will melt, so as to have a 
good bed of coal between the charges of iron, without 
using too much coal. The iron should be charged in 
the cupola from two to three hours before the blast is 
put on. 

The bed should never be allowed to get white hot on 
top before the iron is charged. If the bed is burnt too 
much the iron will be dull through the first charge, and 
probably through the entire heat. If the bed is too 
high, or is not burnt enough, the iron will be a long 
time in coming down, and the cupola may melt slow 
through the entire heat. If too much coal is used be- 
tween the charges of iron the cupola will melt irreg- 
ularly. The iron should be down in five or ten minutes 
after the blast is on if the cupola has been charged 
right. The charging door should always be closed 
after the stock is all charged. 



COAL MELTERS. 

When melters, who have been accustomed to melting 
with coal, undertake to melt with coke in the same 
cupola, they should remember that their cupola has 
more draft than a regular coke cupola ; that less wood 
is required to light coke than coal. Coke will burn up 
faster. The bed must be put in higher up. The iron 
should not be melted in as large charges. The coke 
should be charged by weight, and not by bulk ; it will 
melt iron faster than coal, and care must be taken to 
keep it out of the tuyeres. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 65 



CHARGING- WITH COKE. 

Less wood is required for starting the fire when coke 
is used for melting than when coal is used. If the cu- 
pola has a good draft, all the coke for the bed should be 
put in on the wood before the fire is lit ; but if it has a 
poor draft, only part of it should be put in before light- 
ing the fire. When the wood has burnt out and the 
€oke is red hot at the tuyeres, it is time to charge the 
iron. A coke bed should never be allowed to get red 
hot on top before the iron is charged. The top of the 
bed, when all in, should not be more than eighteen or 
twenty inches above the top of the tuyeres when the 
iron is charged. The iron should be charged from one 
to two hours before the blast is put on ; it should not be 
melted in as large charges with coke as with coal. In 
other respects, the same directions should be followed 
as given in charging with coal, and the same results 
will be produced from improper charging. 



COKE MELTERS. 

When melters, who have been accustomed to melting 
with coke, undertake to melt with hard coal in the same 
cupola, they should remember that their cupola has not 
so much draft as a cupola built fqr melting with coal. 
More wood must be used to start the fire ; and it must 
be lit earlier. The bed must not be so high. The 
iron must be charged in larger charges. The coal 
should be charged by weight, and not by bulk. Coal 
will melt iron slower than coke. 



66 • FOUNDING OF IRON. 

PIG-IRON. 

All pig-iron has more or less sand on it, and has a 
hard, chilled scale under the sand, which resists the 
action of the heat upon the iron, and prevents its melt- 
ing. If the pig is broken before it is charged, it ex- 
poses the clean iron in the ends of the pig to the heat, 
and it will be noticed that the pieces of pig dropped 
through, partially melted, have commenced to melt at 
the ends where the clean iron was exposed to the heat. 
Pieces of pig will sometimes be found where their ends 
have been melted out for an inch or more, and left the 
outside scale on the pig standing, which shows that this 
scale resists the action of the heat upon the iron ; and 
the shorter the iron is broken, the more clean ends will 
be exposed to the heat, and the better it will melt, and 
less fuel will be required to melt it. A pig should be 
broken in at least three or four pieces before being 
charged. In charging the cupola the pig-iron should 
be thrown in with the face or top side of the pig down, 
as it has less scale on the top than on the sides, and 
will melt better. All these little points are taken ad- 
vantage of by the practical and scientific melter. 



PRESSUBE OF BLAST. 

The blast should be put on light at first ; not more 
than one-half of the pressure should be put on for the 
first five or ten minutes. The pressure of blast used 
for melting iron in cupolas will vary from six to sixteen 
ounces, the best melting being done with from eight to 
ten ounces pressure with coke, and with from ten to 
fourteen ounces pressure with coal. The foundryman 
or melter should use his own judgment about the blast, 
and he should know by practical experience when he 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 67 

has enough, too much or too little blast. Too much de- 
pendence should not be placed upon air-gauges, as they 
may show a great pressure of blast, and the tuyeres be 
too small to admit of volume enough of blast to do good 
melting. The air-gauge will invariably show more 
pressure of blast toward the last of the heat, when the 
tuyeres have become bunged up, than at the first of the 
heat, yet the cupola will have less blast. Too little 
blast will cause slow melting; too much blast will 
harden the iron and make it dull, unless too much fuel 
is used. See Combustion and Heat. 



DUMPING THE CUPOLA. 

The blast should be taken off as soon as there is 
enough iron melted. It is better for the cupola to drop 
the bottom with a little unmelted iron in it than it is to 
melt every drop before dropping the bottom. Ten min- 
utes blowing after the iron is all melted, will make the 
cupola harder to dump, and will injure the lining more 
than two hours melting would do when the cupola was 
full of stock. The melter should never throw iron into 
the cupola after the stock gets too low, or the iron is all 
melted. If a little more iron is charged in a small 
cupola than is wanted, it will make it easy to dump ; 
the bottom should never be dropped when there is any 
molten iron in the cupola. 



FIRE IN THE DUMP. 

Some melters never put out the fire in the dump, but 
allow it to burn out. This should not be done, for there 
is a great deal of fuel dropped through the cupola, 
partly burnt, that may be used again in the cupola or 



68 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

under the boiler ; and by allowing it to burn up in the 
dump it does no good, but does harm in cementing the 
dump more solidly together and making it harder to 
shovel out. 



THE DUMP. 

The dump should be carefully picked over as it is 
taken out from under the cupola, and the large pieces 
of iron and fuel thrown out. If the old sand bottom is 
to be put in again, it should be riddled out of the dump 
and the cinder should be put in the mill and ground, 
and all the iron carefully picked out of it. If there is 
no mill, the cinder should all be broken up fine and 
riddled through a No. 2 riddle, so as to get all the iron. 
Some melters throw more iron away in the dump, every 
day, than would pay their wages. I have seen old men 
and women make a good living, at Pittsburg and other 
places, by gathering the iron out of the dumps from 
cupolas after they had been thrown out on the bank of 
the river, and selling it for one-fourth cent per pound. 



PIG MOLD FOR OVER-IRON. 

Stove molders alw^ays have more or less little dribs of 
iron left in their ladles, which they cannot pour into 
their work ; and these little dribs will generally make 
the iron too dull to run their work if they are kept in 
the ladle until the next catch ; so, to get rid of it, the 
molder will pour it down in the gangway, or at the 
back end of his floor, or most any place. In this way 
a great deal of iron is lost in course of time ; or if it is 
not lost, it becomes mixed with sand and dirt, and will 
make a dirty iron when re-melted. To prevent this 
waste of iron, the foundryman should have a cast-iron 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 69 

pig mold (as shown in fig. 17) set in the gangways at 
the head of each man's floor, so that the molder can 
pour all the little dribs of over-iron into it, and collect 
them in one pig. These molds are the best when made 
to hold about half a ladle of iron ; they can then be 
easily turned over, and the iron turned out, and the 
mold re-filled, if necessary ; or the molds may be made 
larger, and a few of them set around the cupola instead 
of in the gangways. These pig molds have been made 




Fig. 17. 
with a swivel on each end, and hung in a cast-iron 
frame, and are dumped by means of a crank, when 
full, and again re-filled ; but this arrangement has 
generally been abandoned in favor of small molds in 
the gangways, and a few large ones around the cupola. 
Care should always be taken to have these molds dry 
and clean, and the molder should always be careful to 
pour the iron into them slow at first, and heat the mold 
gradually to prevent the iron from exploding. 



COMBUSTION AND HEAT. 

All ordinary processes of fermentation, decay and 
fire are produced by a union of oxygen with a sub- 
stance, and are only different forms of combustion ; 
they diff'er in the time employed in the operation. If 
oxygen unites rapidly, we call it fire ; if slowly, decay. 
Yet the process and the products are the same in the 
combination of an atom of oxygen with an atom of car- 
bon, — a certain amount of heat is produced. Hence, 
the house that decays in fifty years gives out as much 



70 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

heat during that time as if it had been swept off by a 
fierce conflagration in as many minutes. If we supply 
our cupolas with oxygen rapidly, the combustion will 
be rapid and the heat intense. If we supply it slowly, 
the combustion will be slow and the heat mild. Hence, 
the use of a blast for our cupolas. In order to form a 
thorough combustion of fuel, every two atoms of oxygen 
must unite with one atom of carbon. If less than two 
atoms of oxygen are supplied to one atom of carbon, 
the combustion is not thorough. If more than two 
atoms of oxygen are supplied to one of carbon, it 
will not form a chemical combustion, but a mechanical 
destruction of the fuel. If the blast is too mild, we 
have a thorough combustion, but we do not have a rapid 
combustion, nor an intense heat; and more fuel and 
more time is required to make hot iron, but there will 
be little or no slag ; there will be more ash, and the 
cinders in the cupola will be brittle and easy to pick 
out in a short heat ; but if the cupola is kept in blast 
for a long time, the ash may become cemented together 
and form a tough cinder, and the cupola will be hard 
to pick out. If we have too much blast, or a too sharp 
and cutting blast, the oxygen cannot combine with the 
carbon of the fuel so rapidly, but it will overcome the 
carbon, and will make an intense heat ; but the heat 
will be short-lived. The iron cannot take up the heat 
so rapidly, and more fuel is required to make hot iron ; 
and there is not a chemical combustion of the fuel, but 
a mechanical destruction ; for the oxygen of the blast 
combines with the carbon of the fuel so rapidly that 
the non-carbonic residue of the fuel is not consumed, 
but is converted into a slag. 

Foundrymen will often notice that they have more 
slag on one day than another. This slag is generally 
caused by more blast on one day than another ; and 
more blast may be supplied by running the fan or 
blower faster, or by charging the cupola so that it is 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 71 

choked down, and the carbonic-acid gas cannot escape. 
Hence the cupola should be charged even, and the fan 
or blower run to suit the cupola. If we only supply the 
cupola with enough oxygen to form a thorough and 
rapid combustion, the heat will be intense, and will 
make little or no slag; for the non-carbonic residue of 
the fuel will be converted into an oxide or light cinder, 
and will be carried out at the top of the stack, — less 
fuel will be required to make hot iron, and it will be 
melted at a more even temperature, and make a better 
casting. I have often seen two ciipolas made up in the 
same shape, and both melting the same irons ; one of 
them would make a great deal of slag, and be hard to 
pick out, while the other made little or none, and was 
easy to pick out. This was because the cupola that 
made the slag had too much blast. • 

Chemists tell us that, in order to produce a perfect com- 
bustion, we must have two atoms of oxygen to one atom 
of carbon; but the question is, how are we to know when 
we have two atoms of oxygen or one atom of carbon, or 
how are we to know when we have too much or too 
little blast? This is a question that can only be 
answered by practical experience, as no rule can be 
given that will hold good in all cupolas. Yet I might 
make some suggestions that would assist the foundry- 
man in regulating his blast. In visiting different foun- 
dries through the country, I have found that scarcely 
any two cupolas are charged exactly alike, although 
they may be exactly the same size, and, to all appear- 
ance, the same. Yet the stacks may not be so high, or 
one cupola may be set along side of a high building or 
down in a hollow, so that it will have little or no draft; 
and if charged exactly the same as a cupola that has a 
good draft, the result would be that we would not have 
a thorough combustion, and probably we would have a 
•dull iron. Still this cupola with the poor draft may be 
charged so as to do good melting; but it cannot be 



72 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

made to do as fast melting as a cupola with a good 
draft. Thus we may, by varying our charges of fuel 
and iron, produce a thorough combustion, and do good 
melting in any cupola. I should recommend fast melt- 
ing in cupolas, a good strong volume of blast, and a 
varying of the charges of fuel and iron to suit the blast 
and cupola. I should recommend high stacks on cupo- 
las, and a good draft. I should recommend charging 
the iron compactly together, so as to utilize all the heat 
from \hQ fuel ; but the iron should not be packed so- 
close as to form a complete damper over the fuel, and 
nof admit of the escape of the carbonic-acid gas whick 
is formed by the combustion of the fuel. 



THE MELTING- POINT. 

The theory that iron in a cupola is melted all up 
through the stock is wrong, for every cupola has a cer- 
tain point at which the iron is melted, and there is not 
a pound of iron melted in any cupola until it comes- 
down to the melting point. The melting point in a 
cupola is generally from six to eighteen inches above 
the tuyeres, but it may be raised or lowered a little by 
increasing or diminishing the amount of fuel in the 
bed ; but if we get the bed too high it throws the melt- 
ing point too high, and the result will be slow melting. 
If we get the bed too low, it will allow the iron to get 
below the melting point, and the result will be dull 
iron ; and in order to do good melting in any cupola, it 
is very essential that the melter should know the melt- 
ing point of his particular cupola. The melting point 
of a cupola is the point at which the most intense heat 
is created by the action of the blast upon the fuel. This 
intense heat at the melting point will cut the lining 
more than at any other place in the cupola, and th& 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 73 

lining will generally be found to be cut out more just 
above the tuyeres than at any other point, which indi- 
cates the melting point of the cupola. If the tuyeres 
are put in so as to distribute the blast evenly through 
the stock, and the charges of iron and fuel are put in 
evenly, and every charge leveled up properly, the heat 
will be even all through the cupola, and the lining will be 
cut out in a regular belt at the melting point all around 
the cupola. On the other hand, if the tuyeres are not 
put in so as to distribute the blast evenly through the 
stock, or the charges of iron and fuel are not put in even 
and level, or if the fire is all on one side of the cupola, 
the heat will not be even through the cupola, and the 
lining will not be cut out in a regular belt at the melt- 
ing point, but will be cut full of holes, which shows that 
the cupola is not melting all around, but is only melt- 
ing in spots. By this irregular charging and melting 
in spots, the cupola may be reduced to half its melting 
capacity, which accounts for a cupola melting fast on 
one day and slow on another day. As before intimated, 
the melting point in a cupola is the point at which the 
most intense heat is created by the action of the blast 
upon the fuel. When the blast enters the cupola it is 
cold, and as it passes through the heated fuel it becomes 
hot, and as it becomes hot it creates heat by combina- 
tion with the fuel, and makes an intense heat. If we 
have a very strong blast it will travel fast and will pass 
through the fuel rapidly, and it will have to pass 
through more fuel before it becomes heated sufficiently 
to make an intense heat by combination with the fuel. 
On the other hand, if we have a mild blast, the blast 
vdll pass through the heated fuel slowly, and is more 
heated, so that it does not have to pass through so much 
fuel before it becomes sufficiently heated to make an 
intense heat by combination with the fuel; so that 
when we have a strong blast the melting point of a 
cupola is higher than when we have a mild or weak 



74 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

blast ; and the bed has to be put in higher in a cupola 
with a high melting point than in a cupola with a low 
melting point, which accounts for one cupola requiring 
more fuel in the bed than another cupola does. When 
the cupola is in blast, the bed or fuel in the bottom of 
the cupola is constantly burning up, and the unmelted • 
iron will get down below the melting point. To pre- 
vent this, the melter has recourse to charges of fuel 
between the charges of iron, and as the charges of iron 
are melted and drawn out at the tap hole, the charges 
of fuel come down and replenis-h the bed and again 
raise the melting point ; the next charge of iron comes 
down and is melted and drawn out ; the bed is reduced 
and is again replenished by the next charge of fuel, 
and so on through the whole heat. If we supply too 
much or too little fuel between the charges of iron, the 
melting point will be raised too high or reduced too low, 
or in other words, if we have a melting point of ten or 
twelve inches in height in our cupola, and we supply 
twenty or twenty-five inches of fuel, this extra fuel 
must all be burnt up before the iron can come down to 
the melting point ; and we will not have a continuous 
melting, but will have a delay between each charge of 
iron. If, on the other hand, we have only five or six 
inches of fuel between the charges of iron, when we 
should have ten or twelve inches, this small amount will 
not more than half replenish the bed, and the unmelted 
iron will get down too low and will not make hot iron, 
and the iron may not be melted at all ; and in order to 
do either fast or economical melting, we must not use 
either too much or too little fuel, and we must have the 
fuel distributed so as to suit the particular cupola in 
which it is used; for, as before explained, there are 
scarcely two cupolas that will melt exactly alike on 
account of the melting point being higher or lower, 
which is caused by a stronger or weaker blast, or by 
more or less draft ; and in order to do good melting, 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 75 

the melter should not charge his cupola just the same 
as some other cupola of the same size is charged be- 
cause that cupola does good melting charged in that 
way ; but he should vary the height of the bed and the 
amount of fuel between the charges of iron, and the 
amount of iron on the bed and on each charge of fuel, 
until he finds the exact proportions that will do the best 
melting in that particular cupola. 

Melters, in changing from one cupola to another, will 
generally have trouble in making hot iron, and they 
will often make a complete failure of melting in a 
strange cupola. This is simply because they undertake 
to charge that cupola the same as some other cupola 
that they have been melting in, and they never pay 
any attention to the draft, blast, or the melting point 
of the cupola, which is the cause of their failure in melt- 
ing in a strange cupola. When a melter takes charge 
of a strange cupola, his first object should be to study 
the draft of the cupola, the nature of the blast, and to 
ascertain the melting point of the cupola. He can gen- 
erally tell where the melting point is by noticing where 
the lining is cut out the most, and he can tell whether 
the cupola is melting evenly, or is only melting in spots, 
by noticing whether the lining is cut out in a regular 
belt all around the cupola, or is only cut out in holes, as 
before explained. He can tell whether the bed is too 
high or too low by noticing how the cupola melts. He 
can tell whether he is using too much fuel between the 
charges of iron, or if he is putting in the charges of 
iron too heavy, by noticing whether the cupola melts 
regularly or not, and by noticing if it makes regular 
iron ; for if the iron is very hot in one part of the heat 
and dull in another part, it is a sure indication that the 
fuel is not properly distributed through the iron, and 
it should be remedied by increasing or diminishing the 
weight of the charges of fuel or iron. 

In melting with coke, the melter cannot put in his 



76 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

iron in as large charges as he can with coal, because the 
coke is more bulky than coal, and he has more bulk in 
the same weight, and if he puts the same weight of coke 
between the charges of iron as he does of coal, the bulk 
of the coke will raise the iron above the melting point, 
and the iron cannot be melted until part of the coke is 
burnt up so as to allow the iron to come down to the 
melting point, and the result is that he does not have a 
continuous melting, but he has a delay between each 
charge of iron, and the iron will probably be dull in 
the latter part of each charge ; but the melter can do 
equally as regular melting, and can do faster melting 
with coke than he can with coal, by putting in the coke 
and iron in smaller charges, and more of them, which 
proves conclusively that good melting can be done with 
almost any fuel and in any cupola, if the melter under- 
stands his business; but he may not be able to do as 
economical melting in a poor cupola as he can in a 
good one. 



BLAST MACHINES. 

All the old style blast machines, such as the leather 
bellows, the trompe or water blast, the chain blast, and 
the cogniardelle or water-cylinder blast, have gone out 
of use in the foundries in this country, and have gener- 
ally been replaced by the cylinder or piston blowers, 
and these last are rapidly giving way to the more mod- 
ern machines, which are cheaper and require less power 
to run them. The principal improved blast machines 
that are in use in foundries at the present time are, the 
McKenzie blower, the Root blower, the Baker blower, 
the Clark fan, and the Sturtevant fan. The McKenzie 
blower is a pressure blower ; it is manufactured in the 
State of New Jersey, and is the oldest rotary pressure 
blower in use. It is in general use all over the country, 



' FOUNDING OF IRON, 77 

and gives a good blast. The Root blower is also a pres- 
sure blower ; it is manufactured in the State of Indiana, 
and is in general use through the West. The Baker 
blower is also a pressure blower ; it is manufactured in 
Philadelphia, and is in use in a great many foundries 
in Philadelphia and New York. The Sturtevant fan is 
not a pressure blower ; it is manufactured in Boston, 
and is in general use all over this country. The Clark 
fan, like the Sturtevant fan, is not a pressure blower ; 
it is manufactured in the State of New Jersey, and is 
in general use all over this country. All the above 
blowers and fans are rotary blowers or fans. 

I have melted iron with all these blowers and fans, 
and have been able to do as fast and as economical 
melting with the one as the other. Any of them will 
make a good blast for a cupola, and the only advantage 
that any of them have over the other is in the power 
required to run them. The blowers are all sold at about 
the same price, but there is considerable difference in 
the price of the fans ; the Clark fan is sold a great deal 
the cheapest. 

There should be some little difference in charging a 
cupola where a fan or blower is used, for the fan blast 
is not a forced blast, and the stock can be charged in a 
cupola so compactly together as to choke it down and 
shut off the blast ; and in charging a cupola the iron 
should not be packed in too solidly, nor should it be 
packed too open, or the heat will escape up the stack 
and more fuel will be required to make hot iron, but we 
must keep between the two extremes. Even if a forced 
blast is used, the stock should not be packed too solidly, 
for the carbonic acid gas formed by the combustion of 
the fuel cannot escape and will injure the iron. 

The Disston Centennial Pressure Blower is a new 
blower that has lately been invented, and is manufac- 
tured in Philadelphia. I have not seen any of these 
blowers in use in foundries, but they are said to be a 
first class blower. 



78 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 

It is often claimed by foundrymen and melters that 
the changes in the atmosphere affect the working of the 
cupola and the melting of iron, and that less fuel is 
required to melt iron on a damp or cold day than is 
required to melt the same iron on a warm, clear day. 
I have watched these points closely, and have observed 
that iron melted on a cold or dark day seems hotter 
than iron melted on a warm, clear day. This is be- 
cause there is more contrast between the molten iron 
and its surroundings. If we light a candle in daylight 
the flame will seem to make less light than it would at 
night or in the dark, yet there is the same amount of 
flame and the same amount of gases consumed. A bar 
of iron that would look black-hot in daylight, would 
look red-hot in the dark, yet it will not burn you any 
worse in the dark than it would in the light. If we 
heat a bar of iron in the forge and draw it out of the 
fire suddenly, it will look hotter than w^hen it lay in the 
fire, because we see more contrast between the hot iron 
and the cold air than we did between the hot iron and 
the hot coals ; yet there is often a real difference be- 
tween the working of the cupola on one day than on 
another. 

Some melters make a practice of lighting their fire in 
the cupola at a certain time, and charging the iron at a 
certain time every day. On a bright, clear day the 
the cupola will draw better than it will on a damp, 
rainy day, and the bed will be burnt more on a clear 
day, and will probably make a duller iron than it would 
on a damp, rainy day. When the cupola had little or no 
draft, and the bed was not so much burnt up, the melter 
will generally attribute the difference in the iron, on a 
rainy day and a clear day, to the effect of the atmos- 
phere on the cupola and iron, when really the difference 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 79 

is caused by the way in which the bed is burnt. This 
may all be overcome by watching the wind and weather, 
and lighting the fire a little sooner or later, to suit the 
draft of the cupola. From what I have observed, I do 
not think that the changes in the atmosphere make any 
difference in the melting of iron in a cupola, except as 
explained above. 



FLUXES AND FLUXING-. 

These terms are respectively applied to substances 
which impart igneous fluidity when heated with other 
substances, and to the manner of using them. The 
alchemists tried to discover a fluid which should have 
the property of dissolving all things wherewith it might 
come in contact. They neglected to reflect that a neces- 
sity would arise for a vessel to keep it in. Practice 
demonstrated the fact, that coal or coke-smelted iron 
was inferior to charcoal-smelted iron. Analysis of coal 
or coke-smelted iron demonstrates the existence of both 
sulphur and phosphorus, and that the amount of dete- 
rioration in the iron was in direct proportion to the 
quantity of these elements which the fuel contained. 
With a view of getting rid of these impurities, and 
making a coal or coke-smelted iron equal to a charcoal- 
smelted iron, the manufacturer has had recourse to 
fluxes and fluxing in the blast furnace, and for the pur- 
pose of imparting igneous fluidity, the blast furnacemen 
have ,used lime, or the carbonate of lime, as a flux, and 
they have assisted in improving the quality of the iron 
and in carrying off the non-metallic residue of the ores in 
the shape of cinder or slag ; and foundry men, thinking 
that what is good as a flux in a blast furnace must be 
good as a flux in a cupola, have adopted the use of lime 
or the carbonate of lime as a flux in their foundry cupo- 
las, but they have neglected to reflect that there is a 



80 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

great difference between a blast furnace and its work- 
ings, and a cupola and its workings. The blast fur- 
nace is stocked with ores that have a non-metallic resi- 
due which must be carried off'; the foundry cupola 
is stocked with pig-iron, which has little or no non- 
metallic residue ; the blast furnace is kept continually 
in blast, and the stock is subjected to from twenty-four 
to forty-eight hours heat in the furnace before it is 
tapped out in the shape of iron and cinder ; the foun 
dry cupola is only in blast for a few hours, and the 
stock is only subjected to the heat of the cupola for a 
a short time ; and whereas lime or the carbonate of lime 
does improve iron in a blast furnace where it is sub- 
jected to a long, continuous heat, they will not affect 
the iron in a foundry cupola where the iron is only sub- 
jected to their influence for a few minutes. And in 
order to flux and improve iron in a cupola, the foundry- 
man must have recourse to a more powerful flux than 
lime or the carbonate of lime. With a view of discover- 
ing a flux that would affect iron in a foundry cupola, I 
have spent a great deal of time and money in experi- 
menting on fluxes and fluxing, and I now have the best 
chemical flux ever offered to the public for use in foun- 
dry cupolas. With the aid of my flux almost any iron 
can be run into first-class work. 



LIME ST O.N E FLUX. 

Limestone has been used as a flux in the melting of 
iron, for centuries, and is used more or less at the pres- 
ent time. Most of foundrymen who use limestone con- 
sider a small riddle-full, finely broken up, sufficient for 
a heat of three or four tons of iron, but in some parts of 
the country, and in Cincinnati, Ohio, some of the foun- 
drymen charge large quantities of limestone into their 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 81 

cupolas, and tap slag the same as a blast furnace. This 
they claim purifies the iron. I have seen limestone 
used at the rate of one hundred and fifty pounds to the 
ton of iron (at Zanesville, Ohio) in a straight cupola 
forty inches in diameter, and slag tapped. 

I do not consider that the use of limestone in a cupola, 
either in large or small quantities, is any advantage 
either in melting or cleaning the iron ; in fact I have 
fouij-d it a great disadvantage by careful tests made 
with and without it. Careful tests were made at the 
foundry of James Marshall & Co., Pittsburg, Pa., in 
1874 : 

35,150 pounds of iron were charged in the Truesdale 
Xjatent cupola ; 32,144 pounds obtained; 3,006 pounds 
lost in melting, with a large percentage of limestone 
and slag tapped. 

33,000 pounds of iron were charged in their common 
straight cupola ; 31,235 pounds obtained ; 1,765 pounds 
lost in melting, without any limestone or other flux. 

The loss with the limestone was 3,006 pounds, while 
the loss without it was 1,765 fjounds, showing a difier- 
ence in favor of no limestone of 1,241 pounds, or a little 
over three per cent. 

When limestone is used in a cupola in small quanti- 
ties, it makes a heavy, tough slag that will run out at 
the tapping hole and bung up the spout and ladles. I 
claim that limestone should never be used in a cupola, 
either in large or small quantities, for the following 
reasons : 

1st. It takes coal or coke to melt it. 

2d. It don't do the , iron or the cupola any good after 
it is melted. 

3d. It makes the slag in the cupola tougher and 
harder to pick out, especially if the limestone is poor. 

4th. It makes the wastage of iron greater. 

6 



82 FOUNDING OF IRON, 



OYSTER-SHELL FLUX. 

Oyster shells are, like limestone, extensively used as 
a flux in melting iron in cupolas, but they are worse 
than limestone. It is a well-known fact that shells con- 
tain a large percentage of phosphorus, and in using 
them as a flux in the cupola, the phosphorus is taken 
up by the iron and is by it made a cold-short, harder 
and weaker iron. The use of shells in large quantities 
makes it necessary to use a much higher grade of iron 
to produce an equally good casting. 



FLORA-SPAR FLTJX. 

Flora-spar has been used as a flux in melting iron in 
cupolas, and it makes a very good flux if the flora-spar 
is pure ; but when it is poor it is very hard on the 
lining of the cupola, and for that reason it has gener- 
ally been abandoned as a flux in cupolas. 



MARBLE-SPALLS FLUX. 

Marble-Spalls are sometimes used as a flux in cupolas ; 
they make a very good flux, and I should recommend 
using them in small quantities. 



PATENT FLUXES. 

Several patent fluxes have been invented, and intro- 
duced and used with more or less success. My Patent 
Flux Is The Best. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 83 

CHARCOAL FLUX. 

Sometimes charcoal is used as a flux. It is put into 
the cupola in small quantities with the iron and fuel, 
and is very good to give life to the iron ; but it is dan- 
gerous on account of fire, as it is easily blown out of the 
cupola, and the sparks may set fire to the foundry or 
other buildings. 



POTATO FLUX. 

A raw potato is sometimes stuck on the end Of a tap- 
ping bar and put down to the bottom of a large ladle 
of iron ; this makes the iron boil and throws the dirt to 
the top of the iron, when it can be skimmed off. 



CLEAN IRON AND SOUND 
CASTING-S. 

The best way to clean iron and make good, clean and 
sound castings, is to melt the iron good and hot, and 
pour it hot and fast. The quicker iron can be put into 
a mold the better. If the sand will not stand hot iron 
it is not good molding sand, and should not be used for 
molding. The most of the dirt and dross in castings 
is caused by the molder allowing his iron to stand in 
the ladle until it is nearly set, so as to allow, the dirt to 
rise to the top of the iron and be skimmed off before 
the iron is poured; they will then dribble it into the 
mold and the casting will be full of dirt and dross, 
when, if the iron was poured hot and fast, it would 
have life enough to carry any dirt that might be in the 
mold up and out of the riser, and the dross in the iron 
would have a chance to rise before the iron sets. 



84 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



POLLING- IRON. 

Some foundrymen, in order to mix the different 
brands of iron proper!}'- in the reverberatory furnace, 
poll the iron. This is done by taking a long pole of 
hickory, or some other strong wood, and running the 
end of the pole into the molten iron and stirring the 
iron with it. The wood poll is better for mixing the 
iron with than an iron bar is, for the wood causes the 
iron to boil around it ; and we not only stir up the iron, 
but we boil it up and cause it to mix more thoroughly 
than if we only stirred it up with an iron bar. Iron is 
sometimes polled in a large ladle after it has been 
melted in a cupola, and it is said to improve the quality 
of the castings. Iron may be thoroughly mixed in a 
ladle by putting a raw potato on to the end of a tapping 
bar and stirring the molten iron with it. A ball of 
clay, or anything that will cause the iron to boil gently, 
is equally as good as a potato. I should recommend 
polling iron in all cases where the iron is tapped in 
large ladles, and it is desirable to make a first-class 
casting. 



SLAG. 



Some melters are always troubled with slag running 
out at the tapping hole with the iron and bunging up 
the spout of the cupola. This slag may be caused by 
limestone or oyster shells used as a flux, or by the sand 
on the pig-iron, or rust on the -scrap, or by fine coal and 
sand shoveled into the cupola with the fuel or iron, or 
by slate in the coal or coke. The careless way in which 
some melters put in their sand bottom and the front or 
breast, will cause slag to run out at the tapping hole ; 
but one of the principal causes of slag is the careless 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 85 

way in which sand or dirt is shoveled into the cupola. 
Some melters never sweep or clean up the floor of the 
scaffold, but shovel all the dirt into the cupola with the 
fine iron or scrap. This dirt is all melted and converted 
into slag. Another cause of slag is the unthorough 
combustion of the fuel, or too much blast. This trouble 
may be overcome by reducing the blast or increasing 
the fuel. See Combustion and Heat. 



DAUBING FOR LADLES. 

Molding sand mixed with a little clay-wash or mo- 
lasses-water makes a good daubing for hand ladles or 
other small ladles; loam, horse-manure and a little 
sharp or fire sand make a good daubing for any sized 
ladle. Salt should never be used in daubing for ladles, 
for it will make them harder to dry, and will draw the 
dampness after they are dry if left standing for a while, 
and will cause the iron to boil in the ladle. Fire clay 
or any other heavy clay should never be used for daub- 
ing ladles (especially small ones), as it is almost impos- 
sible to get them dry in the oven so that the iron will 
not boil in them. The first catch ladles should be 
daubed as lightly and evenly as possible, so as to have 
them dry evenly and quickly, and be light to handle 
without any danger of their cutting through and run- 
ning out. Large ladles that have to be daubed heavily 
should be perforated with small holes around the bot- 
tom so as to allow the gas to escape when the daubing 
is not thoroughly dry without boiling the iron. If the 
daubing is painted with a little blacking mixed with 
water, the iron will not stick to it. 



86 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



LADLE REST. 



Fig. 18. 



Fig. 18 represents a ladle rest for rest- 
ing the double end of the shank upon 
while the moulder is pouring the iron. 
This rest is made by taking a piece of 
wood two or two and a half inches square 
and three feet long, and driving spikes 
into it four or five inches apart, and allow- 
ing the spikes to project out three or more 
inches from the wood. The skimmer-boy 
carries this rest around with him and sets 
it down at any place where the molder 
may wish to pour, so that the molder may 
rest the shank upon the spikes. By this 
arrangement the ladle may be held up 
with ease, and held more steadilj^ than a 
man could hold it by hand. 



PERCENTAGE OF FUEL. 

There is a great difference of opinion in regard to the 
amount of fuel required to melt a ton of iron, and there 
is a great difference in the amount actually used, as 
will be seen by reference to test heats made in different 
foundries in different parts of the country. Some foun- 
drymen will claim that they are melting from ten to 
twelve pounds of iron to one pound of fuel, and they 
will get out their books and show you the exact amount 
of fuel used and iron melted, which will figure out very 
well ; but in most of these cases the old melter has neg- 
lected to weigh the few little pieces of coal or coke that 
he has put in to fill up the holes, and these little pieces 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 87 

sometimes amount to considerable. Other foundrymen 
will claim to be melting as high as fifteen or eighteen 
pounds of iron to one of fuel, but if you question them 
closely, you will generally find that the bed has not 
been counted in, and they are only figuring on the fuel 
used between the charges of iron. 

I have found that the percentage of fuel actually re- 
quired to melt a ton of iron will vary according to the 
quality of the fuel used, the construction of the cupola, 
the pressure of the blast, the way in which the iron is 
charged, the way in which the bed is burnt, and the 
amount of iron melted. A larger percentage of fuel is 
required to run off a small heat than would be required 
for a large heat in the same cupola. The best melting 
I have ever done, or ever seen done in a cupola, is seven 
pounds of iron to one pound of coal, and eight pounds 
of iron to one pound of Connellsville coke, and four 
pounds of iron to one pound of gas-house coke made 
from Pittsburg coal. I have found the average melting 
in foundries that I have visited, to be about four pounds 
of iron to one of coal, and about five pounds of iron to 
one of Connellsville coke, and about three pounds of 
iron to one of gas-house coke. Too much fuel is as bad 
as too little, and the amount actually required can only 
be ascertained by test, as no rule can be given that 
would hold good in all cupolas. The following heats 
that have been melted in different cupolas show the 
percentage of fuel used and the mode of charging. 
Most all of these heats were made in large foundries, 
where the stock is all weighed and melting is done sys- 
tematically ; and they represent a better average melt- 
ing than is actually done through the country; but 
they show no better average melting than is actually 
done in the foundries where these heats were made : 



88 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 



Melting and mixing done at a large Stove Foundry in Albany, 
N. Y., July 29, 1876, in a straight cupola, ivith large coal 
all through the heat; fire lit at 12 m.; iron charged at 1 
p. M. ; blast on at 3 p. m. ; bottom dropped at 5 p. m. ; cu- 
pola 60 inches in diameter ; five oval-shaped, tuyeres 7 i by 
83 inches ; tuyeres 4 inches above the sand bottom ; on the 
backside; cylinder blast used. 











p" 




c 








Coal. 


03 


03 


oTr-! 


II 


§-■ 


II 

< 


§-• 


03 


Lbs. 







ft 

«3 




III 


sizi 


"3 




Bed 


1800 


400 

400 


168 
168 


164 
164 


168 
108 


100 
100 


100 
100 


1100 
1100 


list charge, 








400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


j 4400 lbs. 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


lOJ 


1100 


1st charge ... 


350 


400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 








400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


2d charge, 






400 


16S 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


[ 4400 lbs. 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 




2d charge . . . 


350 


400 


168 


164 


1H8 


100 


100 


1100 








400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


1 3d charge. 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


^ 4400 lbs. 






400 


168 


164 


1(;8 


100 


100 


1100 


3d charge . . . 


350 


400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


1 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


I 4th charge, 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


( 4400 lbs. 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


J 


4th charge . . 


350 


400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 








400 


168- 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 


! .')th charge, 
'■ 4400 lbs. 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 






400 


168 


164 


168 


100 


100 


1100 




















) Gr'nd total 
j 22000 lbs. ! 

1 


Total.... 


3280 


8000 


3360 


3280 


3360 


2000 


2000 


22000 



In this heat the chunks and scraps were counted as 
sprews. 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 



89 



Melting and mixing done at one of the leading Stove Foundries 
of Albany^ N. Y., September 2^, 1876, w a straight cupola 
about 70 inches in diameter ^ ivith cylinder blast ; large coal 
was used all through the heat; fire ivas lit at 11.30 A. m. ; 
iron charged at 12.15 p. m.; blast put ow a^ 2.30 p. m,; 
bottom dropped at 5 30 p. m. 



Coal. 


2 




CO 


5 o 


"2 o 


.2 

>-> 

^ o 


CO 


-1^ 


Lb . 










5^ 


X^ 


^^ 


J3 
Q 


o 

Eh 




Bed 


1900 


500 
'200 


500 
500 


400 
500 


400 
500 


400 
.500 


300 
300 


2500 
2500 


'~ 1st charge, 
) .5000 lbs. 




1st charge... 


350 


300 


500 


400 


400 


300 


100 


2000 


\ 2d charge, 
) 4000 lbs. 








500 


400 


400 


400 


300 


2000 


2d charge 


■too 


300 


500 


400 


400 


300 


100 


2000 


) od charge, 
) 4000 lbs. 






300 


500 


400 


400 


400 




2000 


3d charge. . . . 


400 


300 


500 


400 


400 


400 


. • . 


2000 


) 4th charge, 
4000 lbs. 






300 


500 


400 


400 


400 




2000 


4th charge... 


400 


300 


500 


400 


400 


400 




2000 


) 5th charge, 
) 3600 lbs. 






200 


400 


300 


300 


300 


ioo 


1600 


5th charge... 


400 


300 


500 


400 


400 


400 




2000 


\ 6th charge, 
) 3500 lbs. 






200 


400 


300 


300 


300 




1500 


6th charge... 


400 


300 


500 


400 


400 


400 




2000 


1 7th charge, 
) 3500 lbs. 






200 


400 


300 


300 


300 




1500 


7th charge . . . 


400 


300 


500 


400 


400 


400 


... 


2000 


) 8th charge, 
) 3500 lbs. 






200 


400 


300 


300 


300 




1500 




















, Gr'nd total 
31100 lbs. 


Total 


4650 


4200 


7600 


6100 


6100 


5900 


1200 


.31100 



My flux was used in this heat. 

Melting done at one of the largest Stove Foundries, in Albany, 
N y., in 1876, in straight cupola, six feet in diameter in the 
shell, and lined loith six inch brick ; cupola five feet in the 
clear, six oval shaped tuyeres, four by twelve inches ; Stur- 
tevant fan blast : 





Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Coal in the bed 


. 2,200 


Iron on the bed 


7,200 


First charge of coal . . . 


. 400 






Split of coal 


. 100 


Second charge of iron . 


7,200 


Second charge of coal. . 


. 400 






Split of coal 


. 250 


Third charge of iron . . 


7,200 


Third charge of coal . . 


. 400 






Split of coal '. 


. 250 


Fourth charge of iron 


. 7,200 


Fourth charge of coal. 


. 400 






Split of coal 


. 350 


Fifth charge of iron , . . 
Total iron melted . . 


7,200 


Total coal used 


4,750 


36,000 



In this heat the iron was put into the cupola in 
charges of 7,200 pounds, and in the middle of each 



90 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 



charge of iron a small charge of coal was put in; this 
is designated a split, when really it is only putting in 
the iron in charges of 3,600 pounds with one large 
charge of coal, and the next one small. 

Melting done at the Car Works, at Berwick, Pennsylvania, 
March 25, 1876 : 



Lbs. 

Coal in the bed 1,900 

Coal in tirst charj^e 500 

Coal in second charg-e . 600 
Coal in third charge. . . 700 

Total coal used 3,700 



Lbs. 

Iron on the bed . 4,350 

Iron in tirst charg-e 4,350 

Iron in second charg:e . 4,350 
Iron in third charge. . . 4,350 

Total iron melted. . . . 17,400 



The cupola was an oval-shaped cupola, called a fifteen 
ton cupola, with round tuyeres three and a half inches 
in diameter; the coal used was soft anthracite, from 
the Wilkesbarre region, and in order to keep up the 
bed, the charges of coal had to be increased towaixi the 
last of the heat ; the iron melted was a mixture of cold 
blast iron and steel rails, for car wheels. 

Melting and mixing, done at one of the leading Stove Foundries 
of Albany, NY., on September 28, 187G, in a straight cupola, 
about 50 inches in diameter, with cylinder blast ; large coal 
tvas iised in the bed, small coal between the charges ; fire lit at 
12 M. ; iron charged at 1 p. m. ; blast put on at 2.45 p. m., and 
heat melted in about two and a half hours : 



Coal— Lbs. 


in 


U 

a, 


5 . 

boo 
>-> 


Hudson, 
No. 2. 


M 
O 





Lbs. 


Bed 1,500 

1st charge, 350 
2d charge, 350 
3d charge, 350 
4th charge 250 


300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
200 
200 
200 
100 


500 
.500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
400 
200 


.500 
500 
600 
(JOO 
600 
600 
600 
700 
600 


500 
500 
600 
600 
600 
600 
700 
600 
600 


200 
200 


2,000 
2.000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
1.800 
300 


} 1st charge, 4,000 
}2d charge, 4,000 
} 3d charge, 4,000 
} 4th charge, 4,000 
1 5th charge, 2,100 








Total . . . 2,800 


2,500 


4, GOO 


5,300 


5,300 


400 


18,100 


[-Gr'd total, 18,000 



My flux was used in this heat. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



91 



Melting done at one of the Troy, N. Y., Stove Foundries, in 
1876, in a straight cupola, six feet four inches in diameter in 
the shell, and lined with seven inch brick ; cupola five feet two 
inches in the clear ; six oval shaped tuyeres, three and a half 
by twelve inches, Sturtevant fan blast: 



Lbs. 

Coal in the bed 2,500 

First charge of coal . . . 550 
Second charg^e of coal . 550 
Third charge of coal. . . 200 

Total coal used 3,700 



Lbs. 

Iron on the bed 8,000 

Second charge of iron . 6,000 
Third charge of iron . . . 6,000 
Fourth charge of iron . 2,500 

Total iron melted 22,000 



In this heat the iron was charged in twenty hundred 
pounds drafts, thirteen hundred pig-iron, and seven 
hundred sprews and scrap ; fire was lit at 12 m., com- 
menced charging at 12.30 p. m., blast on at 2.30 p. m., 
bottom dropped at about 4.30 p. m., pressure of blast 
thirteen ounces. 



Melting and mixing, done at one of the Peekskill, N. Y., Stove 
Works, July 8, 1876, in a No. 4 McKcnzie cupola, ivith a 
Sturtevant fan ; large coal used all through the heat ; fire lit 
at 11.40 A. M., iron charged at 12.30 p. m., blast on at 2.30 
p. M., tuyeres six inches above sand bottom : 



Coal— Lbs. 


6 

Is 


I— 1 

m . 
eS o 

o 


Crane, 
No 1. 

Peekskill, 
No. 2. 


Sprews. 


Chunks. 


m 

c3 
U 


Lbs. 


Bed 1,200 

1st charge, 300 
2d charge, 300 


300 
300 
300 


400 
200 
200 

•:oo 

200 
300 


300 500 
400 600 
200 500 
' 300 54© 
200 500 
200 1 500 


400 
600 
300 
400 
300 
400 


100 2,000 

200 2,000 
1,500 

100 1,.500 
1,500 

100 1,500 


J 1st charge, 4,000 
1 2d charge, 3,000 
} 3d charge, 3,000 


Total . . . 1,800 


900 


1,500 


1,6003,100 


2,400 500 10,000 


\ Grand tot. 10,000 



My flux was used in this heat. 



92 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



Melting and mixing, done at a Stove Foundry, Green Island, 
N. Y., October 21, 1876, in a round cupola, 48 inches in 
diameter at the charging door, and about 35 inches in diameter 
at the ticyers ; four tuyeres, 18 by 2 inches, ivere used ; large 
coal ivas used for the bed, small coal between charges ; fire lit 
at 12 M., iron charged at 12.45 p. m., blast on at 2.30 p. m., 
bottom dropped at 4.30 p. m.; tuyers four inches from sand 
bottom on back side : 



Coal used. 


O 
Q 


6 


< 




ft 


3 
o 
H 


Lbs. 


In the bed.. 
1st charge.. 
2d charge . . 
3d charge .. 

Total coal, 


1,200 
500 
400 
400 


300 
100 
100 
100 


500 

600 
600 
000 
500 
6oO 
600 
600 


400 

600 
500 
600 
600 
(iOO 
500 
6U0 


300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 
300 


1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 


1 1st charge, 3,000 
1 2d charge, 3,000 
1 3d charge, 3,000 
1 4th charge, 3,000 

1 Total iron, 12,000 


2,500 


600 


4,600 


4,400 


2,400 


12,000 



My flux was used in this heat. 



Melting done at a Foundry in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., July 18, 
1876, in a No. 4 McKenzie cupola ; coal used ivas small- 
sized hard coal, what is knoivn as grate or steamboat coal. 
The fire tvas lit at 12.30 p. m. ; iron charged at 12.50 p. m. ; 
blast on at 2.30 p. m., and iron ivas down in 25 or 30 min- 
utes ; Sturtevant fan blast ivas used. 



Coal used in the bed. . . 
First charge of coal . . . 
Second charge of coal.. 
Third charge of coal . . 



Lbs. 
900 
300 
300 
150 



Total coal used 1,650 



First charge of iron . . . 
Second charge of iron. 
Third charge of iron . . 
Fourth charge of ii'on , 



Lbs. 
4,200 
3,000 
3,000 
1,200 



Total iron melted 11,400 



This heat was melted in the same sized McKenzie 
cupola as the one used at the stove works at Peekskill, 
N. Y., and in this heat, as will be seen, there was 
almost one pound more of iron melted to the pound of 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



93 



coal than was melted at Peekskill, and this iron was 
hotter and more even. This saving of coal and more 
even iron was caused by the small coal being used in 
place of large coal. When at Poughkeepsie, I sug- 
gested to the foreman of the foundry that he might ob- 
tain better results by lighting his fire sooner, and allow- 
ing it to get burnt up more before the iron was charged. 
He followed my suggestion and lit the fire an hour ear- 
lier, and charged the iron earlier and put on the blast 
at the same time. The result was, that the iron was 
down in five or ten minutes after the blast was put on, 
and one hundred pounds less coal were required for 
the bed. 



3Ielting done at a Stove WorTcs in Baltimore, Md., in a straight 
cupola 60 inches in diameter. The fuel used was Lehigh 
Valley coal and Connellsville coke. 



« 


Lbs. 




libs. 


Coal in the bed 


1,800 


Iron on the bed 


. 5,000 


First cliarg-e of coke. . . 


2i:0 


First charge of iron . . . 


2,000 


Second charge of coke. 


200 


Second charge of iron . 


2,000 


Third charge of coke . . 


200 


Third charge of iron . . 


. 2,000 


Fourth charge of coke . 


200 


Fourth charge of iron. 


2,000 


Fifth charge of coke . , . 


175 


Fifth charge of iron 


2,000 


, Sixth charge of coke. . . 


175 


Sixth charge of iron . . . 


1,500 


1 Seventh charge of coke, 


175 


Seventh charge of iron 


1,500 


Eighth cliarge of coke . 


175 


Eighth charge of iron. 


1,500 


Nintli cliarge of coke . . 


150 


Ninth charge of iron . . 


1,500 


Tenth charge of coke . . 


150 


Tenth charge of iron. . 


1,500 


Eleventh charge of coke 


150 


Eleventh charge of iron 


, 1,500 


Twelfth charge of coke, 
Total coal and coke used 


100 


Twelfth charge of iron. 
Total iron nielted 


.1,500 


3,850 


25,500 



This way of making the bed of coal and the charges 
of coke has been adopted in some parts of the country, 
and seems to work very well. 



94 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 



Melting done in Cincinnati, Ohio, in a straight cupola, forty 
indies in diameter, with four round tuyeres three inches above 
the sand bottom, ivith Coymellsville coke and a Hoot hloiver. 



Coke used. 




d 

.s 

'o 

m 


p 




O 

m 




First charge 

Second " 

Third *' 

Fourth " 

Fifth ♦' 

Sixth " 

Seventh *• 


400 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 


300 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 


300 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 


200 
100 
100 
100 
100 


200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
300 
300 


1000 
700 
700 
700 
700 
700 
700 


Total iron melted , . . 


700 


1500 


1500 


600 j 1600 


5200 



Melting done at Louisville, Kg., in a straight cupola thirty 
inches in diameter with two round tuyeres six inches above 
the sand bottom, with old style fan and gas-house coke. The 
iron ivas used for house-work, and had to be hot. 



1 

Coke used. 6 
O 


d 

.2 
'o 


o 


o 


p 


Lbs. 


In the bed 500 

First charge 100 

Second charge 100 

Third charge 100 

Fourth charge 100 

Fifth charge 100 


200 
100 
100 
200 
100 
200 


200 
200 
100 
100 
200 
100 


300 
100 
200 
100 
200 
200 


100 
100 
100 
100 


800 1st cliarge iron. 
500 2d charge iron. 
500 3d charge iron. 
500 4tli charge iron. 
500 5th charge iron . 
500 6tli charge iron. 


Total colve 1000 


900 


900 


1100 


400 


3300 total ii-on. 



Melting done at one of the Cincinnati Stove Foundries, in the 
Truesdale patent cupola, tvith a Boot bloiver and Connells- 
ville coke : 



Ivbs. 



Coke in the bed 1,600 

2 charges of coke, each 175 
13 charges of coke, each 135 
18 charges of coke, each 100 



Total coke used 5,505 



Lb^ 



Iron on the bed 4,000 

2 charges of iron, each 1,500 
13 charges of iron, each 1,000 
18 charges of iron, each 1,000 



Total iron melted 38,000 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 



95 



Melting done at PittsburgJi in a No. 5 McKenzie cupola, with 
a Boot bloiver and Pittsburgli coke : 



Coke. 


03 


ft 
m 


6 

rH 

PI 

< 


a 

A 
O 


CO 
CO 




o 


Lbs. 


1,000 
200 
200 
150 


400 
300 
400 
300 
200 
300 
300 
200 


400 
400 
300 
300 
300 
200 
300 
200 


400 
400 
300 
300 
200 
300 
200 
300 


200 
300 
200 
200 






1,400 
2,600 
1,200 
1,800 

700 
1,300 

800 
1,200 


1 4, 000 1st charge. 
1 3,000 2cl charge. 
1 2,000 3rfl charge. 
1 2,000 4th charge. 

> Total iron melted. 


600 


600 


500 


200 




400 


100 




400 


100 


1,550 


2,400 


2,400 


2,400 


GOO 


1,900 


1,000 


11,000 



Melting done at a Stove Foundry in St. Louis, Mo., in a 
straight cupola 50 inches in diameter, with Connellsville coke 
as fuel. 



Lbs. 

Coke in the bed 1,500 

First charge of* coke 150 

Second charge of coke. . 150 

Third charge of coke... 150 

Fourth charge of coke . . 100 

Fifth charge of coke 100 

Sixth charge of coke 100 

Seventh charge of coke. 100 

Eighth charge of coke . . 100 

Ninth charge of coke . . . 100 

Tenth charge of coke. . . 100 

Eleventh charge of coke, 100 

Twelfth charge of coke . 100 

Thirteenth chai-ge coke. 100 

Total coke used 2,950 



Lbs. 

Iron on the bed 3,500 

First charge of iron.... 2,000 
Second charge of iron .. 1,500 
Third charge of iron . . . 1,500 
Fourth charge of iron .. 1,000 

Fifth charge of iron 1,000 

Sixth charge of iron 1,000 

Seventh charge of iron. . 1,000 
Eighth charge of iron. . . 1,000 

Ninth charge of iron 1,000 

Tenth charge of iron 1,000 

Eleventh charge of iron. 1,000 
Twelfth charge of iron . . 1,000 
Thirteenth charge iron. . 1,000 

Total iron melted 18,500 



96 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

PERCENTAG-E OF FUEL AND 
CASTING'S. 

The following statements of melting was furnished 
to me by some of the leading stove manufacturers of 

Albany, N. Y., and represents the amount of iron 

melted, coal used, and castings produced in their 

foundries in the year 1876. The names of the com- 
panies furnishing these statements have been omitted 
by request : 

First Foundry. 

Tous. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 2,059 1,087 

Amount of stock melted 1,300 1,860 

Amount of clean casting-s net 1,344 919 

The percentag-e of cleaned castings produced to 

the total iron melted 57.70 

Percentage of coal used in melting 15.55 

Second Foundry. 

Gross amount of iron melted 2,817 1,420 

Amount of pig-iron melted * 1,842 1,871 

Amount of cleaned castings net 1,960 889 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to the 

total amount of iron melted 62.12 

Percentage of coal used in melting 14.51 

Third Foundry. 

Gross amount of iron melted 1,818 930 

Amount of pig-iron melted 1,123 42 

Amount of cleaned castings net 1,128 1,407 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total 

iron melted 65.42 

Percentage of coal used in melting 15.17 

Fourth Foundry. 

Gross amount of iron melted 1,009 415 

Amount of pig-iron melted 661 702 

Amount of cleaned castings net 664 707 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total 

amount of irort melted 58.62 

Percentage of coal used 17.22 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 97 



Fifth Foundi'y. 

Tons. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 3,328 84 

Amount of pig-iron melted 2,118 521 

Amount of cleaned castings net 2,216 987 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total 

iron melted 56.35 

Percentage of coal used in melting 16.12 

The following statement was received from the largest 
Stove Foundry in the United States, as a statement of 
melting done last year : 

Tons. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 6,695 1,197 

Amount of pig-iron melted 4,276 1,042 

Amount of cleaned castings net 4,433 975 

Net gain of castings over gross ton of pig-iron.. 166 1,442 
Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total 

iron melted 58.41 

Percentage of coal used in melting 15.08 

The following statement show the percentage of fuel 
used and castings produced in the three different 
foundries in the year 1875 : 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Coal used 15.48 

Coal used 14.70 

Coal used 14.95 



Cleaned castings 61.81 

Cleaned castings 64.01 

Cleaned castings 55.96 



The following statement was received from a large 
stove foundry in Troy, N. Y., as statement of melting 
done in the year 1876 : 

Tons. Lbs. 

Gross amount of iron melted 2,009 987 

Amount of stock melted 1,250 1,760 

Amount of cleaned castings, net 1,294 819 

Percentage of cleaned castings produced to total 

amount of iron melted 59.50 

Perc^entage of coal used in melting 18.10 

The following statements of percentage of castings 
produced and fuel used were furnished from diflferent 
stove foundries in different parts of the country : 

From Cincinnati, 1874. 



Cleaned castings 65.00 

" " 63.26 

" •' 59.72 



Coke used 14.51 

17.12 

16.51 



98 FOUNDING OH IRON. 



From Pittsburg, 1875. 

Cleaned castings 70.11 I Coke used 14.00 

" ." 68.21 I " 15.75 

From Baltimore, 1875. 

Cleaned casting's 69.13 I Coal and coke used ... . 15.01 

♦* " 66.71 I Coalnsed 20.00 

From PhiladelpJiia, 1875. 



Cleaned castings 65. 19 

" 60.49 

" " 63.09 



Coal used 18.72 

*' 20.39 

19.78 



From Louisville, Ky., 1875. 

Cleaned castings 76.19 I Coke used 27.36 

" 67.08 1 " 32.47 



IRON LOST IN MELTING-. 

Very few foiindrymen have ever made any accu- 
rate tests to ascertain how much iron they actually 
lost in melting. The majority of foundrymen take 
it for granted that they lose from ten to twelve per 
cent. I have made a great many careful tests to ascer- 
tain the exact amount lost in melting, and I find that 
the loss will vary according to the quality of iron melted 
and fuel used, etc. A No. 1 iron will lose more than a 
No. 2 iron, because it is more open and the carbon is 
not so combined with the iron, but is more in the graph- 
ite state, and is more volatile and easily burnt away. 
Old stove plate, shot-iron and other light scrap will lose 
more than a No. 2 iron, because there is more surface 
exposed to the heat before it is melted, and there is 
always more or less rust and dirt on it. Burnt iron 
will lose more than good iron, because the life has all 
been burnt out of it, and we have only the bulk of iron 
without the body. The loss will be greater when the 



lOUNDING OF IRON, 99 

fuel is poor than when it is good, because more bulk of 
fuel has to be used ; the iron is melted higher up in the 
cupola, and is longer in melting. The loss is greater 
in one cupola than in another, because the pressure of 
blast is greater or less ; the cupola is charged different 
and melts different. 

The loss is more when the iron is melted slow and dull 
than when it is melted fast and hot, because the prin- 
cipal loss takes place while the iron is being melted and 
is in the mushy state, and not after it has been melted 
and is in the molten state (a grate bar or an annealing 
box will all be burnt away and never melted). The 
loss will be greater in a machinery than in a stove-plate 
foundry, because their castings are heavier and there 
is not so much surface coated with sand as in stove-plate 
foundries, where the iron is cast in thin plates making 
a great deal of surface which has more or less sand on 
it, which is weighed and sold as iron. 

By careful tests that I have made in different foun- 
dries, I have found the average loss to be about as fol- 
lows : In stove-plate foundries, from two to eight per 
cent. ; in machinery foundries, with the average iron, 
from four to ten per cent. ; on old stove-plate and shot- 
iron, from twenty to thirty per cent. ; on burnt iron, 
from twenty-five to sixty per cent., according to how 
badly the iron was burnt. 

The following test heats were made at the Franklin 
Foundry and Pipe Works, James Marshall & Co., pro- 
prietors, Pittsburg, Pa. : 



Heat melted July 30, 1874, in the Truesdale patent cupola, tvith 
Kirk's chemical flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charg^ed was 88,150 

Amount of iron obtained was 35,946 

Amount lost in melting was 2,204 



100 FOUNDING OF IRON. 



Heat melted July 31, 1874, in the Truesdale patent cupola^ tvith 
a large percentage of lime-stone and slag tapped : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 35.150 

Amount of iron obtained was 32,144 

Amount lost in melting" was 3,006 



Heat melted September 9, 1874, in their common straight cupola^ 
tvith Kirk's chemical flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 33,000 

Amount of iron obtained was , 32,561 

Amount lost in melting was 439 



Heat melted September 14, 1874, in their common straight cupola^ 
with lime-stone as a flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 33,000 

Amount of iron obtained was 31,235 

Amount lost in melting was 1,765 



The following test heats were made at the Vulcan 
Iron Works, Wilkesbarre, Pa. : 

Heat melted December 21, 1875, in their common straight cupola, 
with Kir¥s chemical flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 13,500 

Amount of iron obtained was 13,370 

Amount lost in melting was 130 



Heat melted December 24, 1875, in their common straight cupola, 
ivithout any lime-stone or other flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 13,300 

Amount of iron obtained was 12,799 

Amount lost in melting was 501 



The following test heats were made at the Wyoming 
Valley Manufacturing Co.'s Foundry, Wilkesbarre, Pa. : 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 101 

Heat melted December 29, 1875, in their round bosh cupola, with 
Kir¥s chemical flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 3,700 

Amount of iron obtained was 3,645 

Amount lost in melting' was 55 



Heat melted December 30, 1875, in their round bosh cupola, with 

oyster shell flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of iron charged was 6,200 

Amount of iron obtained was 5,813 

Amount lost in melting was 387 



The following test was made at the Phoenix Foundry, 
Cincinnati, Ohio, January 25, 1875 : 

Lbs. 

Amount of pig-iron charged was 6,100 

Amount of scrap charged was 1,400 

Amount of fine rattle-barrel iron was 2,000 

Total amount charged in cupola 9,500 

Total amount obtained out of cupola 8,750 

Total amount lost in melting 550 



The following test was made at the Baldwin Loco- 
motive works, Philadelphia, Pa., June 26, 1874, in melt- 
ing shot-iron in a thirty inch straight cupola, with 
Kirk's chemical flux : ' 

Lbs. 

Amount of shot-iron charged 2,240 

Amount of pig-iron obtained 1,797 

Amount of iron lost in melting 443 



The following test was made at the American Stove 
and Hollow-ware Ce.'s Foundry, Philadelphia, Pa., 
July 15, 1874, in melting a lot of badly burnt iron in a 
twenty-four ton McKenzie cupola, with the Lawrence 
tuyere in it, and Kirk's chemical flux : 

Lbs. 

Amount of annealing pots charged 2,200 

Amount of pig-iron and scrap obtained 1,540 

Amount of iron lost in melting 660 



102 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

I do not consider this a fair test, as the cupola was 
entirely too large for t]^e amount of iron melted. 

Test heat made in the foundry of the Jackson & 
Woodin Manufacturing Company, to ascertain the 
wastage of iron. Tests were made under immediate 
supervision of their foundry formen : 

Heat melted March 24, 1876. 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Castings 5,029 

Gates and scrap 469 

Cinder scrap 287 



Lump coal 2,002 

No. 2 pig-iron 6,069 

Limestone 160 



Total iron put into the cupola 6,069 lbs. 

out of " 5,785 " 



Lost in melting 284 lbs. 

or say 4.7 per cent., or 105 lbs. per 2,240 lbs. 

Heat melted March 25, 1876. 

Lbs. Lbs. 



Lump coal 2,002 

No. 2 pig-iron 6,069 

Kirk's chemical flux used. 



Castings 4,380 

Gates and scrap 1,036 

Cinder scrap 504 



Total iron put into the cupola 6,069 lbs. 

outof " 5,920 " 



Lost in melting 149 lbs. 

or say 2^ per cent., or 56 lbs. per 2,240 lbs. 

We hereby certify that the above experiments were carefully 
and impartially made at our works as above stated. 

The Jackson & Woodin Manufacturing Co., 

BY C. G. Jackson, 

Vice-President. 



MEL.TERS. 

In traveling through the country and visiting dif- 
ferent foundries, I have discovered that there are in 
existence, four different classes of melters. The first is 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 103 

the Old Professional Melter who does not know any- 
thing about a modern cupola, and is too old to learn. He 
involves everything about the cupola in mystery, and 
makes out that it is an awful accomplishment to be 
able to run a cupola. Next comes the Smart-Alic 
Melter, who knows a little about a cupola, and has 
some good ideas and a great many bad ones ; he has 
no regularity about what he does, and has a great 
•deal of trouble with the cupola, but he always has a 
^ood excuse for everything that goes wrong, so the 
boss thinks he is all right. Next comes the cheap 
melter, who does not know anything about a cupola, 
and does not make any pretence to know anything, 
but works along like a machine and gets his wages 
every Saturday night. He wastes a fearful lot of fuel 
and iron, and the molders lose heaps of castings on 
his account, but he works cheap and is kept on. Next 
comes the Practical and Scientific Melter, who does 
not make any great pretence to know anything, but 
who understands his business and attends to it; he 
does everything by rule and always has good hot iron. 
I have described these four melters at length, so that 
by comparison of them, the melters can see what is the 
cause of their trouble, and the foundrymen how they 
are imposed upon by melters. 



THE OLD MELTER. 

Scarcely one owner of a foundry in a hundred under- 
stands the melting* of iron, either practically or theo- 
retically, and there is not one foundry foreman in fifty 
that could take a cupola and run off a heat successfully. 
If you speak to them about melting iron, they will tell 
you that they have an old melter that has melted iron 
for twenty years, and knows all about melting iron, 
and is doing the best melting that is done around this 



104 lOUNDTNO OF IRON. 

part of the country. The old melter is generally a man 
whose father was a melter, and whose grandfather 
used to own a foundry, and all he knows about a 
cupola and melting iron was handed down to him by 
tradition from his grandfather. If you go on to the 
scaffold when the cupola is being charged, you will 
find the old melter standing at the charging door of 
the cupola with a look of mysterious wisdom plainly 
depicted upon his countenance. Every piece of iron 
is handed to him by his helpers and he throws it into 
the cupola. If the helpers chances to throw a piece of 
iron into the cupola, the old melter will take his bar 
and roll it over or twist it around a little ; if he does 
not move it around with his bar, and their is one dull 
ladle of iron in the heat, it is all laid to that particular 
piece of iron that was not charged right. 

The old melter lights his fire and charges the iron at 
a certain time every day, regardless of wind or weather. 
The lire is not half burnt up one day and the bed is all 
burnt up the next day, the result is, that on one day 
the blast has to be on for half an hour before any iron 
can be melted, and the next day the iron will be down 
in five minutes after the blast is on, and so dull that it 
cannot be used. If you ask the old melter why the 
cupola melts slow, or why the iron is dull, he will tell 
you that he has attended cupolas for twenty years, and 
they are liable to take those kind of spells any time — 
a cupola won't do to bet on, boss ; or he may squint one 
eye, give you a knowing look, and remark that we are 
going to have a change of weather ; I can see it in the 
cupola, for the changes in the atmosphere always affects 
the melting of iron. If the owner of the foundry hears 
that his neighbors are melting ten lbs. of iron to one 
lb. of fuel, he tells the old melter about it, and wants 
him to do the same. The old melter declares that iron 
cannot be melted ten to one, and that there is not a 
foundry in the country doing it ; but if the boss insists 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 105 

that it must be done, the old melter goes to work at it and 
will do as well as his neighbor, and probably a little 
better. If an accurate account is kept of all the coal or 
coke charged in the cupola for a year, and compared 
with the coal or coke bought and delivered in the yard 
for the same year, the boss will probably find that he 
is short two or three hundred tons. If he asks the old 
melter what has become of this two or three hundred 
tons of coal or coke, the old melter will declare that he 
only used one lb. of fuel to ten lbs. of iron, and that the 
account he has given is correct, for he weighed all the 
fuel that went into the cupola except a few little pieces 
that he put in to fill up the holes in the bed before he 
commenced charging, which he did not bother about 
weighing. If the old melter takes a day, the whole 
shop must lay off", for the cupola is a mystery, and no 
one dare undertake to run off a heat except the old 
melter. Thus it goes on from time to time, and the 
old melter is the Lion of the foundry. 



PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC 
MELTER. 

The practical and scientific melter, is the melter who 
understands his business, and attends to his business ; 
he chips out his cupola, and daubs it up in proper 
shape ; he puts up the iron bottom, and sees that it fits 
close and solid, and is properly supported ; he puts in 
the sand-bottom, and sees that it is packed solid and 
even, and has the proper pitch, without any hills or 
hollows in it ; he puts in the front so that it never blows 
out, and he sees that the spout is in proper shape ; he 
always has the tapping-bars drawn down to a sharp 
point, so that he can tap with ease, and have the tap- 
hole large or small ; he has his bod-clay thoroughly 



106 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

mixed, and his bod-sticks always handy, and in good 
shape. When he wants to stop-up, he takes the bod- 
stick and sees that there is a bod on it in proper shape ; 
he then puts the bod right over the tap-hole and gives 
it a sudden downward pressure, and stops the iron with 
ease. He puts in the shavings to light the fire with, 
and sees that they are properly spread over the sand- 
bottom, so as to light the wood evenly — the wood is cut 
short and split, and every piece is laid in the cupola, in 
the proper shape, so as to give the fire the best possible 
chance to burn, and light the coal or coke evenly ; he 
selects a few small pieces of coal or coke, that will light 
easily, and puts them in on the wood, he then puts in 
the bed. K the cupola has a good draft, he puts in all 
of the bed before the fire is lit; if the cupola has a 
poor draft, he only puts in part of the bed before the 
fire is lit, and the balance' after the fire has got thor- 
oughly started. He sees that the bed is evenly burnt 
and level on top, before the iron is charged ; he charges 
the iron compactly together, so that it will get the good 
of all the heat frOm the fuel ; he sees that every charge 
of iron is level and even on top when all in ; he sees 
that every charge of fuel is properly distributed over 
the iron, so that it will melt the next charge of iron 
properly, and at an even temperature ; he increases or 
diminishes the amount of coal or coke, in the bed, or 
between the charges of iron, at the rate of twenty-five 
or fifty pounds at a time, until he finds the exact 
amount required ; he increases or diminishes the 
amount of iron on the bed, or in the charges, at the 
rate of one hundred pounds at a time, until he finds the 
exact amount of iron that can be melted in that par- 
ticular cupola, with the smallest percentage of fuel ; he 
then continues that charging without a,ny variation ; 
if he gets in a poor lot of fuel, he may increase the bed 
and charges of fuel a few pounds; or, if the fuel is 
extra good, he may decrease a few pounds, but always 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 107 

with caution and safety he watches the direction the 
wind blows, and notes the effect that a north, south, 
east or west wind has upon the draft of his cupola, and 
he lights his fire accordingly, so as to have the bed 
burnt as near alike, every day, as possible ; he inspects 
the blast-pipe and tuyeres, every day, to see that there 
are no holes in the pipe through which the blast may 
escape, and to see that the tuyeres are in proper shape, 
so that the blast will not escape up behind and through 
the lining, in place of through the stock ; he notices the 
exact effect of the blast upon the cupola, and he knows 
when he is not getting enough blast, and at once com- 
plains to the foreman, or engineer ; he looks around the 
shop, toward the last of the heat, and sees or asks the 
foreman how much more iron is wanted ; he then looks 
into the cupola, and if he thinks there is not enough 
iron in to pour off with, he throws in a little more, be- 
fore the stock gets too low to melt it. The practical 
and scientific melter does everything according to rule, 
and not by guess, and the foundrymen can depend 
upon him having good hot clean iron, every day, if it 
is possible to make it in his cupola. 



SMART-ALIC MELTER. 

The Smart- Alic melter is generally a very pompous 
and very important man in his own mind : he is always 
ready to give his opinion on everything, and more espe- 
cially on the cupola. He will tell you all about the 
cupola he was running before he came here, and what 
good luck he had with it. He will tell a new molder 
all about how well he gets along here, and he may tell 
him about that bad heat he had the other day when 
the engineer let the belts on the fan get loose, and he 
had no blast. He is always full of business and flying 



108 lOUNBING OF IRON. 

around in a hurry, especially when the boss happens to 
be around. He picks out the cupola and daubs it up 
in a hurry, and gets out of it as quickly as possible, 
because it is a dirty job, and he says that it needs a 
new lining, anyhow. He puts up the iron bottom, and 
it may be twisted or warped a little, and will rock on 
the prop. He never wedges it or puts in an extra prop 
to make it solid, for he says the sand bottom makes that 
all right. The stock in melting may hang a little and 
come down with a lurch, and rock the iron bottom on 
the prop and crack the sand bottom and let the iron 
run out around the edges of the bottom ; Smart- Alic 
then jumps around and swears at that damned old 
crooked bottom — we ought to have had a new one long 
ago — and every one gets around the cupola with a 
bucket of water, a shovelful of sand or a ball of clay, 
and the bod sticks. Every one tells how it ought to be 
stopped ; they never think of taking off the blast ; the 
iron is melting all the time, and before they get it 
stopped from running out through the* bottom, it is 
running out at the tuyeres. Some one halloos, tap out 
the iron running out at the tuyeres. Smart- Alic then 
rushes around, grabs up the tapping bar, jabs it into 
the front in a hurry, and probably he will knock out 
the whole front and the iron runs out all over the floor, 
and finally the bottom has to be dropped. He puts in 
his sand bottom, and will probably ram it so hard in 
spots that the iron will not lay upon it, but will boil and 
cut up the sand, and will make a dirty iron, if it does 
not cut through and run out ; or he may have it so soft 
in spots that the iron will run through it, or so low on 
the back side that the iron will not run out at the front. 
He takes shavings to light the fire with up to the 
charging door, and throws them in ; it does not make 
any difference whether they are spread over the sand 
bottom or not, for they will burn, anyhow. He puts 
the wood in in long pieces, for he says the cupola has a 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 109 

good draft and it will burn a long piece of wood just as 
well as it will a short piece, and there is no use of cut- 
ting it. He throws the wood in from the charging 
door, on its end, and it may dig a hole through the . 
sand bottom and let the iron run out. Smart- Alic will 
then fly around and swear that the melter that run that 
cupola before him, let the iron run out and burnt the 
iron bottom full of holes, and he cannot keep the iron 
in it without a new iron bottom. One-haU' of the wood 
will be above the coal or coke after the bed has been 
put in. That is all right ; the wood put in that way 
gives the fire vent and makes it burn better ; he says 
that little bit of wood that is above the coal or coke 
does not cost anything. He does not care if the fire is 
all on one side of the cupola, for he says that the blast 
will soon fix that after it is put on. If he is told that 
he is using too much fuel and he must use less, he will 
reduce it by taking four or five hundred pounds off 
the bed, and one or two hundred pounds off each 
charge of fuel, the first slap. If he is told that it might 
be better to put the iron in the cupola in larger cliarges, 
he will add another ton or two of iron on the bed, and 
will increase each charge of iron fifteen or twenty hun- 
dred pounds, the first slap. 

This way of decreasing the fuel or increasing the 
charges of iron is generally a failure, and the result is 
dull iron. Smart- Alic will then strut around the shop, 
pull down his vest, and tell you that he knew that cupola 
would not make hot iron charged in that way, for 
he has studied and watched it close, and knows just 
what it will do ; and it won't make hot iron with 
any less fuel than he is using ; and if you want to melt 
with less fuel, says he, you must get a new cupola, for 
that darned old thing is played out, anyhow. He never 
pays any attention to whether the wind blows from the 
north, south, east or west, because he does not melt iron 
by the way the wind blows, but by a fan blast, and 



110 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

that fan will make just as much blast if the wind 
blows from the north as it will if the wind blows from 
the south ; he would never have any trouble in melting 
if the engineer would keep the belts, on the fan, tight, 
and give him a good blast. He never looks at the blast- 
pipe to see if there are any holes in it through which the 
blast may escape, because that is not his business ; and 
he has too much to do now, for all the wages that he 
gets, without fooling around an old blast-pipe. He 
never looks at the tuyeres to see if the blast escapes up 
back of or through the lining, for it is no use, for he 
put them tuyeres in right when he lined up, about a 
year ago, and he knows that they are all right. He 
charges the cupola so irregularly that he cannot tell any- 
thing about whether he has enough blast or not, but he 
is eternally growling about not having any blast, and 
his growling becomes an old song, and the foreman, or 
the engineer, never pays any attention to him. He 
never sharpens the tapping-bars, but has them blunt on 
the end, and in tapping he shoves the old bod into the 
cupola instead of cutting it away, and the iron forces it 
back into the hole and stops the iron from running out ; 
he takes the bar and jabs it into the hole and works it 
around, and will probably knock out the front ; he will 
then swear that that sand is not fit to put in the front 
with, because it cracks and crumbles when the heat 
strikes it ; he says that old spout is good enough for to- 
day, for he is a little behind time and cannot fool 
around making a new spout every day; he never pays any 
attention as to how his stopping-clay is, until he wants 
to use it, then he finds that it is too dry and he throws 
a little water on it and mixes it up in a hurry and has 
it wet and dry in spots ; he has his bod-sticks laying 
around anywhere, and he seldom has a bod on more 
than one stick at a time ; when he wants to stop-up, he 
takes the bod-stick, flourishes it around, the bod drops 
off into the ladle of iron, and he rams the stick into the 



FOUNDING OF IRON. Ill 

tapping hole, the iron flutters and squirts out around the 
stick, and some one tells him that he has no bod on that 
stick, then he flies around and makes two or three un- 
successful attempts to put on a bod in a hurry ; he tells 
every body to stand back and give him a chance — that 
they will crowd up around that cupola until they all get 
burnt some of these times ; he will finally get a bod on, 
and get the cupola stopped-up, after the ladle has run 
over, and the iron runs all over the floor, or the bod-clay 
may be so wet that it cannot drop oft* the stick, and in 
stopping-up he will shove the bod up under the stream, 
the iron shoots out over the bod and burns his hands, he 
drops the stick and swears that those stopping-sticks 
are too short, and he must have some new ones, for he is 
not going to get burnt every day stopping-up. The 
foreman makes out his estimate of how much iron he 
wants that day, and gives the estimate to the melter to 
charge by ; Smart- Alic looks at it, and says to himself, 
well, we had five hundred pounds too much iron yester- 
day, and I am not going to have five hundred pounds 
too much to-day to lug out and pour in the pig-bed, so 
he charges five hundred pounds less than he is ordered 
to do, the result is, that they are five hundred pounds 
short that day ; the foreman thinks that he made his 
estimates too low, and the next day he adds a little to 
make up for what he was short the day before ; he then 
gives his estimate to the melter ; Smart-Alic looks at it 
and says to himself, that he was short five hundred 
pounds yesterday, and he is not going to be short to-day, 
sohe charges five hundred pounds more than he is ordered 
to do, the result is, that they have ten or fifteen hun- 
dred pounds more than is wanted, and no one is to 
blame. Smart-Alic does not have all of these troubles, 
every day, but he has some of them most every day ; 
he will have from two to three bad heats a week, and 
will blame them on the blast, on the atmosphere, on 
poor fuel, on that old, worn out cupola ; and, in fact, he 



112 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

will blame the bad heats on most anything but himself. 
I have not made up my mind yet whether the old pro- 
fessional melter, or the Smart- Alio melter, is the worst, 
but I have made up my mind that they are both a nui- 
sance about a foundry. 

N. B. — Smart- Alic, with all his faults, has his good 
redeeming qualities, for he is generally a philanthro- 
pist ; he often supports one or two families out of the 
dump ; he helps the poor fire-brick manufacturer to sell 
his brick, and the poor dealer in fire-sand and fire-clay 
tells the foundryman that he has got such a good 
melter ; if it was not for Smart- Alic, the poor patent 
cupola man would die of starvation, but if Smart- Alic 
was to " pass in his checks," the engineer and the flux- 
man would be happy. 



HOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

Not only have the foundrymen endeavored to imitate 
the blast furnacemen in the adaptation of limestone as 
a flux for their cupolas, but they have also attempted 
to imitate them in the adaptation of a hot-blast for 
their cupolas, and with this view several different styles 
bf cupolas and ovens for heating the blast have been 
constructed, but they have generally been abandoned 
as a failure. The best hot-blast arrangement for a 
cupola, that I have seen, is that represented in fig. 19, 
in which D D represent the cupola in which the stock 
is charged and the iron is melted ; B JB represent the 
arched flue that connects the top of the cupola with the 
ovens E E, and through which the heat passes into the 
oven from the cupola i), as shown by the white darts ; 
it then passes down around the coil of the pipes C C, 




Fig. 19. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. IIB 

and enters the flue or stack A at the bottom. The cold 
blast is forced through the pipes C C, which are heated 
by the flame from the cupola, and when the blest enters 
the cupola at the tuyeres it is hot. This pair of cupolas 
were erected by the Foundry Company of Jagger, Tread- 
well & Perry, of Albaiiy, N. Y., with a view of saving 
fuel and improving the quality of the iron melted, but 
experience proved them to be a failure, for more power 
was required to force the blast through the coils of pipe, 
and it took some time to get the pipe hot enough to 
heat the blast, so that the heat would be half off before 
the blast became hot enough to do any good. The coils 
of pipe were expensive to keep up, and although some 
little fuel was saved in the cupola, yet it was not enough 
to pay the expense of keeping up the pipe, and this 
hot-blast arrangement was abandoned as a failure. 

Several hot-blast cupolas have been built, wdth large 
stacks on top of them filled with coils of pipe, and the 
pipe heated by the flame and waste heat from the 
cupola ; the cold blast was forced in at the top of the 
coil of pipe, and as it passed down through the pipe it 
became hot before reaching the tuyeres. This hot- 
blast arrangement was like that of fig. 19, expensive to 
keep up, and has generally, been abandoned. 

Several attempts have been made to. draw hot air 
from the stack of the cupola and again force it in at the 
tuyeres. To do this, the supply pipe for the fan or 
blower has been connected with the stack just above the 
charging-door, and the hot air dra\vn from the cupola 
and forced through' the fan or blower and into the 
tuyeres. This arrangement has in every instance been 
a failure, for the hot air from the cupola soon heats the 
fan or blower, and burns off' the belts and ruins the 
machine. 

Whether or not a hot blast will improve the quality 
of pig-iron when remelted in a cupola, has not been de- 
termined ; but it has been satisfactorily demonstrated 
8 



114 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

that the blast cannot be economically heated with the 
waste heat from the cupola, for, in order to heat the 
blast, we must pass it through coils of hot pipe, and the 
heat from the cupola is not intense enough, before the 
blast is put on, to heat the pipe, and the cold blast must 
be put on in order to create a flame from the cupola 
and heat the pipe ; and when the cold blast is passing 
through the pipe to the cupola, it takes some time to 
heat the pipe wdth the flame from the cupola, and in 
melting a few tons of iron the pipe would not become 
sufficiently hot to heat the blast before the iron would 
all be melted ; and even if the pipe were sufficiently 
heated to heat the blast, toward the last of the heat, the 
often sudden cooling of them when the cupola was 
dumped, would soon break and crack the pipe, which 
would have to be replaced with new ones to avoid the 
escape of the blast ; and the advantage gained by this 
kind of a hot- blast will not pay the expense of keeping 
up the pipe. 

The only way that the blast can be thoroughly heated 
and the pipe prevented from breaking, is, to heat the 
pipe in an oven and keep them continually hot, the same 
as at a blast furnace. This arrangement cannot be eco- 
nomically applied to small foundries where the cupola 
is only in blast for two or three hours each day ; but it 
might be applied in large foundries where one cupola 
after another is put in blast, so that one or more cupo- 
las are kept in blast all day. For small foundries a hot 
blast might be arranged by building a furnace and 
closing up the ash-pit, and blowing the cold blast into 
the ash-pit and allowing it to pass through the tire be- 
fore entering the cupola. This arrangement would be 
a success so far as heating the blast, but the question 
would be; whether volume enough of blast could be 
forced through the fire to supply the cupola without 
putting out the tire or using too much fuel to heat the 
blast. I do not know that this arrangement has ever 



FOUNDING OF IRON, 115 

been tried for a cupola, but it has been tried for a rever- 
beratory furnace, with anthracite coal, and works suc- 
cessfully; and some of our enterprising foundrymen 
might do well to try and apply it to their cupolas. 



RE YERBERATORY FURNACES. 

The reverberatory furnace is the best furnace for 
melting and mixing iron on the large scale for foundry 
purposes. They are next to the crucible for making a 
good homogeneous foundry metal, and are used in all 
foundries where heavy work is made that requires a 
good homogeneous iron and great strength such as 
cannon, rolls for rolling mills, house and bridge beams, 
etc. Iron melted in the reverberatory furnace is 
cleaner than iron melted in a cupola, and it will flow 
into the mold like molten lead, and will make a casting 
more free from blow holes ; but in foundries where 
light work is made and hot fluid iron is more of an 
object than the strength of the castings, the reverbera- 
tory furnace has, as a general thing, been replaced by 
the cupola furnace, which has the advantage over the 
reverberatory furnace of melting iron faster, hotter, 
and with less fuel ; but the iron in the reverberatory 
furnace is not melted in contact with the fuel as in the 
cupola, but it is melted by the flame or gases from the 
fuel, and it does not take up the sulphur and other im- 
purities from the fuel. as it would do if melted in con- 
tact with the fuel. There are several different kinds 
of the reverberatory furnaces, but they only differ in 
the minor points of their construction, and all agree in 
the one principle of throwing a highly heated flame 
against the iron. These furnaces are constructed of 
flre-brick laid in fire-clay,, and the whole furnace is 
surrounded with cast-iron plates bound together with 



116 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

cross ties or rods, and they are sometimes built of 
common brick and lined with tire-brick, and the whole- 
bound together by iron cross-ties and binders. But 
the furnace surrounded with the cast-iron plates is the 
best and the cheapest furnace in the long run. In the 
reverberatory furnace the bridge wall that separates 
the hearth and the grate-bars is from six to ten inches 
high above the hearth and twenty or twenty-five inches 
above the grate-bars. The grate-bars are three or four 
feet long and the grate or fire-place is as wide as the 
furnace and sometimes wider. A large slide door is 
put in just back of the bridge wall for charging the 
iron ; this door may be in the top of the furnace or on 
one side. 

The iron to be melted is all piled in the furnace on 
the hearth just back of the bridge wall before the fire 
is lit. The stack of the furnace should be high enough 
to give a good strong draft, and it should be fitted 
with a damper on top of it so as to regulate the draft. 
The walls of these furnaces should be very thick so as 
to be as bad a conductor of heat as possible. All the 
cracks and openings around the door and in any part 
of the furnace should be carefully stopped up with clay 
or loam when the furnace is in operation, so that no 
cold air will be admitted into the furnace except 
through the grate and fire. In the working of these 
furnaces a great deal depends upon the bridge wall 
between the hearth and the fire, for if the bridge wall 
is either too high or too low the heat will be wasted 
and hot iron cannot be made. The best fuel for the 
reverberatory furnace is the bituminous coal. Anthra- 
cite coal or coke is used in some parts of t e country as 
fuel for this class of furnaces, but it is not near so good 
as the bituminous coal. When the anthracite coal or 
coke is used, the ash-pit of the furnace is closed up and 
a mild blast turned into the ash-pit so as to supply 
oxygen more rapidly and create more flame from the 



IS 



5^ 






A 






fi 



%. 



i 




g «■» y A <-^ ^LMAM r. M^r: 



Fig. 20. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 117 

fuel. When the anthracite coal is used, a large amount 
of fine ashes will be carried over the bridge wall and 
deposited on top of the molten iron ; these ashes will 
prevent the iron absorbing the heat, and where it is 
desirable to make very hot iron, these ashe^ should be 
occasionally skimmed off through an opening made in 
the furnace for that purpose. Wood is not at all 
qualified for use as a fuel in this kind of a furnace 
where no mineral coal can be obtained ; charcoal may 
be used as a substitute for it. 

Fig. 20 represents a sectional view of the reverbera- 
tory furnace that is generally used in foundries for 
melting iron. In this furnace A represents the grate 
or fire-place ; B the hearth upon which the iron is 
melted; C the tap-hole at which the iron is drawn 
out of the furnace, and D the door through which the 
refuse is taken out and the furnace repaired. The 
hearth B is generally put in with fire sand or a mix- 
ture of sand and fire clay, or it may be built of brick 
and nearly covered with fire sand or clay. The pig- 
iron or iron intended to be melted is piled on the 
hearth just back of the bridge w^all, and as it melts it 
fiows into the basin or hollow in the centre of the 
furnace where it remains until it becomes sufficiently 
heated to run into the molds. It is then drawn out at 
the tap hole C into ladles for small work, but for large 
work it is generally run from the furnace through a 
trough directly into the mold. In foundries where 
large quanties of iron is melted for heavy castings and 
it is desirable to mi:jr the iron thoroughly by polling it, 
the hearth of this furnace is made as wide as the grate 
or fire-place, and the fire-place may be five or six feet 
wide, but in foundries where only small amounts of 
iron is melted, and it is desirable to make the iron very 
hot and fluid for light work, such as malleable castings, 
the hearth is only two or three feet wide, while the fire- 
place is five or six feet wide. By reducing the width 



118 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

of the hearth in this way, the heat is more concentrated 
on the iron and will make a hotter and more fluid iron. 
Fig. 21 represents a sectional view of another style of 
reverberatory furnaces, that is commonly used in foun- 
dries where light castings is made, and it is desirable 
to make very hot iron. In this figure, A represents the 
grate, or fire-place, in which the fuel is burned ; the 
iron intended to be melted is piled on the hearth of the 
furnace, just back of the bridge wall, through a large 
door in the side of the furnace, as indicated by the dot- 
ted lines ; this door is raised and lowered by a lever on 
top of the furnace, as shown in fig 21. In charging the 
iron in the furnace, it should be piled on the hearth 
eighteen or twenty inches back from the bridge wall, 
so as to cause the flame from the fuel to dip over the 
bridge wall, and strike the iron. As the iron is melted 
on the hearth it flows down into the basin C, and all 
the dirt or sand on the iron is left on the hearth from 
where it may be removed through the large door. After 
the heat, the molten irpn is held in the basin, at the 
bottom of the stack, where the heat is the most intense, 
until it is sufficiently fluid to run into the molds. It is 
then drawn out into ladles, or may be run from the fur- 
nace directly into the mold. This furnace is consid- 
ered to be a better furnace for making hot iron than 
the furnace, fig. 20. In constructing this furnace, the 
grate, or fire-place is generally made five or six feet 
wide, and the flue, at the bottom of the stack, is only 
two or three feet wide, so as to concentrate the heat 
upon the iron, and also to concentrate the iron, so as 
not to expose so much surface of molten iron to the ox- 
idizing action of the flame. Less fuel is required for 
this furnace than for any of the other kinds of reverber- 
atory furnaces. 




Fig. 21, 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 119 



YOUR NEIG-HBOR AND YOU. 

Some foundrymen wonder how it comes that their 
neighbor can sell castings so much cheaper than they 
can and make a living. They say that they buy stock 
as cheap as their neighbor, and they do not pay their 
men any higher wages, and they have got just as good 
molders, and they put up as large a day's work as their 
neighbor's niolders do ; their patterns do not cost any 
more than they do in any other foundry, and their 
neighbor must be losing money and will break up in a 
short time. They never look at the cupola ; they think 
that is a foundry fixture that is alike in every foundry, 
but there is just where the difference comes in. Your 
neighbor sees that his cupola is constructed right, and 
charged and worked right, and by so doing he will 
undersell you and still make a good profit. If a prac- 
tical foundryman was to travel through the country and 
examine the cupolas in use at the present time, he 
would be surprised to see how unscientific and how 
little judgment has been used in their construction. He 
will find cupolas sixty inches in diameter, and only 
seven or eight feet high. The next cupola will be 
twenty inches in diameter and fifteen or twenty feet 
high. The next one will be built like a big tub, larger 
at the top of the stack than at the bottom of the cupola, 
and the heat all escapes up the stack. The next one 
will only have one or two small tuyeres ; and the next 
one w^ill be all tuyeres. One cupola will have scarcely 
any blast, and the next one will have three times as 
much blast as it ought to have. The next one will be 
an old cast-iron stave cupola with one-half of the staves 
broken, and more blast escaping through the caisson 
than is going up through the stock. The next one has 
not been lined for ten years or more, and the lining is 
all cracked an 1 shaky, and one-half of the blast escapes 



120 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

up between the lining and the caisson ; and so it goes 
all through the country, and yet we boast about the 
advancement we have made in the construction of fur- 
naces and the melting of iron. There is no more judg- 
ment used in the selection of a melter than there is in 
the construction of cupolas. Foundrymen generally 
believe in cheap labor, and they consider the melter an 
unimportant man, and they will hire some cheap man 
that does not know enough about the laws of combus- 
tion to start a fire in a cook stove, and they will give 
him full charge of the cupola. He gets a few instruc- 
tions when he first takes charge of the cupola, and after 
that he is allowed to do as he pleases and use his own 
judgment, and he has no more judgment than a shoe- 
maker's hog. He will pick out the cupola three times 
as much as he ought, and then daub on two or three 
inches of mud ; and he will generally have to put in a 
few new bricks every day. He has to put in three or 
four feet of new lining (just above the tuyeres) about 
once a month. He will use twice as much wood in 
starting the fire as is necessary, and throw it all on one 
side of the cupola. He will put the bed in too high, 
and use twice as much fuel between the charges of iron 
as is necessary. This extra fuel has all to be burnt up 
before the iron can come down to the melting point. 
The nuid is too heavy to hang on the brick lining, and 
breaks loose and settles down over the tuyeres, and 
prevents the iron from melting, and it takes two or 
three hours to run off a heat that should be run off in 
one hour ; and there is more wastage of iron, more fuel 
has to be used under the boiler, and there is more wear 
and tear of the machinery and belts. This poor, cheap 
melter will use and cause to be used twenty dollars 
worth more stock, in the melting of a few tons of iron, 
than is really necessary to be used. Yet the foundry- 
man never notices any of these things ; all he thinks of 
is the twenty-five or fifty cents less per day that he 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 121 

pays this man than he would have to pay a good man. 
The melter has the dirtiest and most disagreeable 
job about the foundry ; in the winter he has to stand 
in the cupola and pick it out, and the draft of the cupola 
makes it the coldest place about the foundry. He has 
to handle the cold mud with his hands to daub up with. 
The cupola often stands outside, and he has to be out 
in all kinds of weather to charge up. In the summer 
he often has to go in and pick it out before it is cold, 
and he has to be around where it is the hottest, charg- 
ing and tapping out — and a good man is not going to at- 
tend a cupola unless he gets better pay than he can get 
for more agreeable work. The melter is generally the 
poorest paid man about the foundry, and he is often 
the poorest man about it. This should not be so ; for 
the melter is the most important man about the foun- 
dry. It makes no difference how much care a molder 
may take to make a nice, clean mold ; he cannot make 
a nice casting without good, hot, clean iron ; and it 
makes no difference how much expense the foundry 
company may go to for the latest improved fan or 
blower, or for the best cupola ; for the best cupola in 
the world will not do good melting unless it is charged 
and worked right, and no man should have charge of a 
cupola but a good, sober, sensible man, that has some 
judgment of his own. The melter in a small foundry 
should receive as much wages as a molder, and the 
melter in a large foundry should receive more wages 
than a molder. If he is not worth as much or more 
than a molder, he is not worth having about the foun- 
dry. No foundry foreman is a competent man to have 
charge of a foundry who does not thoroughly under- 
stand the working of a cupola and the melting and mix- 
ing of irons. He should be able to take the cupola and 
run off a heat as well as the melter. No foundryman, 
who has not thoroughly investigated the management 
of cupolas and the melting of iron, has any idea how 



122 FOUNDING OF IRON, 

much money can be and is wasted by the improper con- 
struction and management of cupolas. If foundrymen 
would pay more attention to their cupolas, they would 
be able to compete with their neighbors in the market ; 
for a diligent study of the construction and manage- 
ment of cupolas and furnaces will not only enable the 
foundryman to obtain the most valuable iron from a 
given material, but it will enable him to modify his 
products in accordance with the state of the market and 
the wants of the times. Perhaps in no other branch of 
business is rational and skilled management so indis- 
pensable an element of success as in the foundry busi- 
ness. Hence the difference of success between differ- 
ent individuals where locality and material have been 
equally favorable. Neither education nor superior 
means is a guarantee of success. A vigorous applica- 
tion of the reasoning faculty alone will insure success 
in a close contest of competition. 



SCRAPS. 

If a poor molder loses his work, he will always swear 
that the iron was dull or dirty. 

If a good molder loses his work, he knows why He 
lost it, and remedies the evil next time. 

If the cupola makes dull iron, or melts badly, the 
melter will blame it upon the engineer, and swear he 
had no blast. 

If the cupola makes dull iron, or melts slow, the en- 
gineer will swear that the melter has packed the stock 
too closely in the cupola, and that he is giving it more 
blast than it had last heat. 

The melter that melts ten to one, is a fraud. 

Never throw a stone at a melter or foreman of a Cin- 
cinnati foundry, for you might hit a tuyere inventor. 

The patent cupola that will melt a forty-pound hand- 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 123 

ladle full of iron every six seconds from the time the 
blast goes on until the bottom is dropped, and give one 
hundred and twenty men each four hundred pounds of 
iron out of twenty ton charges, is the best cupola ou^. 

The best tea-kettle molder in the United States works 
in nine hollow-ware foundries out of every ten ; but the 
Cincinnati foreman that made eighty-four tea-kettles 
every day far six weeks, and never lost one of them, is 
the boss of them all. 

The melter that always has trouble with his cupola, 
and always blames the cause of the trouble on some one 
else, is a fraud. 

There is no telling how much fuel or fire-clay a melter 
uses when he has a pile to go to. 

That darn'd old worn-out cupola will be as good as a 
new one, if you put a new lining into it and keep it up 
in proper shape. 

That molder who made the big cannon that they 
drew the ball into with a yoke of oxen, and then took 
the oxen out through the touch-hole — he is dead; and 
any moulder that comes around and represents himself 
to be the man, is a fraud. 



MALLEABLE-IRON CASTINGS. 

The term malleable-iron means an iron from which 
the carbon has been removed by the operation of pud- 
dling and boiling, fnd is a wrought-iron. The term 
malleable-iron castings means an iron that has been 
cast into any desired shape, and then malleableized by 
removing the carbon by a process of annealing, which 
consists in burning off the whole or a part of the carbon 
combined with the iron from which the castings were 
made. 

In the manufacture of malleable-iron castings, the first 



124 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

object is to get the proper kind of pig-iron, for all iron 
is not suitable for making malleable-iron by the process 
of annealing. From the states in which carbon exists 
in cast-iron, this has been classified into three princi- 
pal sub-divisions. The first is the gray metal, or num- 
ber one foundry pig, in which the carbon is not com- 
bined with the iron, but is in the graphitic state, and 
may be seen in large flakes when the iron is broken. 
These flakes are sometimes called tissue and black-lead. 
The second division is the mottled cast-iron. In this 
iron the carbon is partly combined with iron and partly 
in the graphitic state, which gives the iron a spotted or 
mottled appearance. This iron is also called forge, or 
mill-iron. The third division is the white cast-iron. In 
this iron the carbon is combined with the iron, and is 
unseen. This iron is also called forge, or mill-iron. 

The gray iron, or number one foundry -iron, is the 
best iron for ordinary foundry castings, because it con- 
tains the most carbon, and is softer, and will remain 
fluid longer than either the mottled or white irons ; yet 
it is not the best iron for malleable castings, for the 
carbon in it is not combined with the iron, and in con- 
verting the castings into malleable -iron, the carbon is 
extracted from the iron without melting the castings, 
and if this class of iron is used, the castings will be 
full of small holes after they have been malleableized, 
and they will not have the required strength. 

The iron that will make the best malleable castings 
is the white cast-iron, for in this iron the carbon is com- 
pletely combined with the iron, and when it is ab- 
stracted from it by the annealing process, it leaves a 
perfectly sound and smooth casting. But in using this 
iron for malleable castings, another trouble arises. The 
iron contains so little carbon that it will not retain its 
fluidity long enough to be run into light castings ; and 
almost all of the malleable castings are very light, so 
that this class of iron cannot be used. 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 125 

And as the gray iron, or number one foundry iron, 
contains too much carbon, and the white iron too little 
carbon, the best iron for malleable castings must be the 
mottled iron, which is between the two extremes. And 
this is the iron that is always used for malleable-iron 
castings, and none but the very best brands of cold- 
blast charcoal mottled iron will produce a good mallea- 
ble casting. The brands of iron that are considered the 
best for malleable castings are the Baltimore and Chi- 
cago irons. The^e irons each have their local names, 
but among the foundrymen they are generally known 
by the above names. The numbers four and five Bal- 
timore irons are generally used together, as they pro- 
duce the best castings ; and the numbers five and 
six Chicago irons are generally used together, as they 
produce the best castings. These irons are graded differ- 
ent, so that the numbers four and five Baltimore irons 
are the same as the numbers five and six Chicago irons. 
These irons are not clear white in the pigs, but are 
slightly mottled, and contain just enough carbon to 
give the iron the necessary fluidity, while in the cast- 
ings the iron is a clear white. There are several other 
brands of iron that are used for malleable castings, but 
as I have not melted or w^orked any of them, I cannot 
give their names, nor the numbers that produce the 
best castings. 

Iron for malleable castings may be melted in a cupola, 
or in either of the reverberatory furnaces (figures 20 
and 21). 

But the iron melted in a reverberatory furnace always 
produces by far the best castings, for the iron is not melted 
in contact with the fuel, as in the cupola, and it is not 
deteriorated by the impurities contained in the fuel. 
There is also the advantage that, should the iron con- 
tain too much carbon, part of it may be removed by 
the oxidizing action of the flame. 

As most all malleable castings are very small,' they 



126 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

are generally molded in snap-flasks, with green sand, 
from metallic patterns, or match-plates. The castings, 
before they are annealed, are as hard and brittle as 
glass, and they must be handled with care to prevent 
breaking. These castings are put into a tumbler, or 
rattle-barrel, where they are cleaned of all adhering 
sand, and become polished by mutual friction ; and to 
have them anneal properly, it is very essential that they 
should be thoroughly cleaned. The cleaned castings 
intended for conversion into malleable iron are next 
packed into iron boxes with alternate layers of fine iron 
scales from rolling-mills. The boxes are then closed at 
the top by a mixture of sand and clay, and all the cracks 
are carefully closed up to prevent the admission of air. 
The boxes are next put into the annealing-oven, where 
they are subjected to a white heat, not sufficiently hot, 
however, to melt the boxes. They are kept at this heat 
for a week or more, and then allowed to cool off gradu- 
ally. After the castings have been properly annealed, 
they are covered with a film of oxide of different colors, 
and resemble in appearance that kind of Champlain 
iron ore called peacock ore. These various colors of the 
oxide are a sign of good malleables. This adherent 
oxide is removed from the casting by another passage 
through the rattle-barrel, and the process of malleable- 
iron making is finished. 

Powdered iron ore is sometimes used in place of the 
iron scales, but it is not near so good as the scales, for 
it contains more or less silica and earth, which, at the 
temperature of the annealing-oven, will fuse and form 
a slag, or cinder, and prevent the oxidizing action on 
the castings. For this reason the scales are to be pre- 
ferred, and care should always be taken to keep them 
as free from earthy matter as possible. In every heat 
or annealing operation, the scales part with some of 
their oxidizing properties, and before they are again 
used they must be pickled and re-oxidized. This is 



FOUNDING OF IRON. 127 

done by wetting them with a solution of sal-ammoniac 
and water, and mixing and drying them until they are 
thoroughly rusted, when they are again ready for use. 
The annealing-boxes were formerly made of soft iron, 
but at the present time they are mostly made of hard 
iron, the same as the castings are made of. The hard 
iron boxes become annealed the same as the castings, 
and will last longer than the soft iron boxes. These 
boxes are generally made about twenty inches long by 
fourteen wide and fourteen deep. They are set one on 
top of another in the annealing-oven, but are never set 
more than two high. The lower one has a bottom cast 
in it, but the top one has no bottom, and is merely a 
frame set on the lower box. These boxes only last a 
few heats, and the small boxes are said to last longer 
than the large ones. 

There are several different kinds of annealing-ovens 
in use at the present time, and some very important 
improvements have been made in the construction of 
these ovens in the last few years. The best one in use 
at the present time is one with a fire on each side of it, 
and so arranged that the flame from the fuel does not 
enter the oven or strike the boxes. This oven is not 
allowed to cool off, but is kept hot all the time, and at 
one end there is a door through which the annealing- 
boxes are removed while at a white heat, and are replaced 
by cold ones. The door is then closed, and the boxes 
heated to the required heat. This kind of an oven is 
the most economical one in use, for it requires less fuel 
than any of the othors, and is not injured by expansion 
and contraction in cooling and re-heating, as the other 
ovens are. When annealing the castings in the oven, 
care should be taken to not have the temperature of the 
oven too high, or the heat too prolonged, or the castings 
may be burnt and hardened after they have been soft- 
ened. After the castings have been thoroughly decar- 
bonized by annealing in the oven, they are virtually a 



128 FOUNDING OF IRON. 

commercially pure iron, and are the same as wrought- 
iron without fiber, and fiber may be imparted to them 
by rolling or hammering. Yet these castings without 
fiber are sometimes equal to the best wrought-iron for 
strength, and may be bent double when cold without 
breaking them. The manufacture of malleable-iron 
by the process of annealing is older than is generally 
supposed. It appears to have been known in the year 
1700, and malleable castings were then made upon the 
same principle as they now are, although it is doubtful 
whether the process had been brought to the same per- 
fection in those days as at the present time. 



THE FOUNDING OF ALLOYS. 



A DESCRIPTION OF THE 
SOURCE, PHYSICAL CHARACTER AND USES 

OP ALL THE 

METALS AND ALLOYS 

EMPLOYED IN « 

THE MECHANICAL AND USEFUL ARTS OF LIFE. 
9 



THE FOUNDING OF ALLOYS. 



The term alloy means a compound of two or more 
metals, but when one of the metals entering into the 
compound is mercury, the compound is then termed an 
amalgam. The founding of alloy seems to be older than 
the founding of iron; for although we read in the 
Scriptures of iron and brass, yet we do not find any 
account of the founding of iron, while we do find accounts 
of the founding of alloys, both in the Scriptures and 
ancient history. In the description of Solomon's tem- 
ple, in the Scriptures, we find that all the pillars, chapi- 
ters, wreaths, panels, bases, and the twelve oxen and 
the bason or sea that set upon the twelve oxen, were 
all made of bright brass ; and all the vessels for the 
temple were made in such great abundance, that the 
weight of them could not be found out ; and all these 
castings for the temple were cast by Hiram, in the 
plain of Jordan, in the clay ground. From this descrip- 
tion it would seem that these castings were made either 
in green sand or loam, and it is probable that the pro- 
cesses of molding them were the same as the processes 
of molding in use at the present time. At the time of 
the building of the temple by Solomon, the Israelites do 
not seem to have understood the founding of alloys to 
the same perfection as the other nations around them ; 
for, when about to build the temple, Solomon sent to 
Hiram, King of Tyre, to send him a man cunning in 



132 METALS AXD ALTAlVS, 

the working of brass ; and in one part of the Scripture 
it is recorded that the King of Tyre sent him a man 
who was a widow's son, of the tribe of Naphtali, and 
his father was a man of Tyre, and a worker in brass. 
And in another part of the Scriptures it is recorded that 
he sent him the son of a w^oman of the daughters of Dan, 
and his father was a man of Tyre, skillful to work in 
gold, silver, brass, iron, etc. Whether tlie King of Tyre 
sent Solomon' any more men to work in brass, is not 
stated ; but as was customary in those days, Hiram, 
the King of Tyre, seems to have gotten all the credit 
^ -for doing the work. 

The founding of alloys seems to have been brought 
to gi'eat perfection by almost all of the ancient nations, 
for all their implements of w^ar, such as the sword, 
spears, shields, etc., were made of bronze, and all their 
tools, ornaments, etc., seem to have been made of alloys 
of different metals. Bright brass seems to have been a 
favorite metal in the days of Solomon, and it is prob- 
able that the ancients valued the bright and showy 
alloj-s more than the less showy metal, iron. The alloy 
bronze seems to have been used by all the ancient na- 
tions for weapons, shields, edged tools, etc. The ancients 
understood the art of hardening and tempering bronze 
to perfection, so that the want of steel was not so se- 
verely felt as we may be inclined to believe at the pres- 
ent time. The ancient Mexicans understood the art of 
converting bronze into edged instruments, in a high 
degree. The bronze of the ancient Greeks consisted 
chiefly of copper and tin, but some of their bronze in- 
struments have been found that also contained gold, 
silver, lead, zinc and arsenic. 

The ancients appear to have been acquainted with 
only seven metals ; at the present time we are acquaint- 
ed with lifty-one or fifty-two ; yet the metals to which 
the application of useful metals most peculiarly belongs 
at the present time, were most all known to the an- 



METALS AND ALLOYS. I'do 

cients, although we have fifty-one or fifty-two metals 
at the present time. Only about fourteen of them are 
used in the foundry of metals or in the useful arts of 
life. The majority of these fifty-one or fifty- two metals 
are merely chemical curiosities of no practical value 
whatever. 



METALS AND RECIPES FOR 
ALLOYS. 

Of all the known metals in use at the present time, 
iron and platinum are the only metals that bear weld- 
ing and forging well, and iron or steel is the only metal 
that admits of being hardened beyond that degree 
which may be produced by simple mechanical means, 
such as hammering, rolling, etc. Yet all the metals, 
with the exception of platinum and its kindred metals, 
admit of ready fusion ; and their fusibility offers an 
easy means of uniting them, and many of them com- 
bine with other metals with great readiness, and by mix- 
ing two or more of these metals by means of fusion, an 
alloy may be formed that is of an entirely diff'erent na- 
ture from any of its constituents, and by the process of 
founding alloys, may be cast into any desired form. 
The malleability and ductility of these metals, as well 
as their hardness and brittleness, is often increased by 
alloying with each other, and these qualities are often 
turned to many usv3ful and varied purposes. The 
ready fusion of these metals also aff'ords a ready means 
of uniting two or more metals by the fusion of a third 
metal, by the process of soldering. Some of these metals 
will unite with others in almost any proportion, and 
forms a perfect chemical mixture which, in many cases, 
produces a superior metal to either of its constituents, 
while in others the chemical affinity is limited, and 
they will only unite in certain proportions, and 



134 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

when mixed beyond these proportions, the alloy is 
only a mechanical mixture, and often forms an infe- 
rior metal to either of its constituents. I have given 
several recipes for the formation of alloys by mixing 
these different metals ; but in using these or other re- 
cipes in forming alloys, the founder must not be guided 
entirely by the recipe, but he should use his own judg- 
ment as well, for the metals may contain certain im- 
purities, or, as it is termed,^ be a poor metal, which will 
produce different results ; and in order to produce good 
alloys, a long practical experience is as essential as 
good recipes ; for a man who has not had practical ex- 
perience in forming alloys, can no more produce a per- 
fect alloy from a recipe than a school-boy can produce 
perfect writing from his first copy. 



ALLOYS OF IRON. 

All admixtures added to iron make it more fusible 
than when pure, although thje admixtures added may 
not be a metal. 

Lead can be alloyed with iron in small quantities. A 
small amount of lead causes iron to be soft and tough, 
but too much causes it to be extreme cold-short. 

Copper, if alloyed with iron, causes it to be extreme 
red-short, and more than one per cent, of copper will 
cause it to be cold-short ; but a small amount of copper 
will increase the strength of iron when cold. 

Arsenic imparts a beautiful white color to iron, re- 
sembling silver, but it makes it very brittle. 

Tin, when alloyed with iron, makes a beautiful fine 
white metal, and when the tin and iron is alloyed about 
half-and-half, the alloy is as hard as steel ; but it can- 
not be forged. 

Chromium, alloyed with iron, makes an alloy that is 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 135 

as hard as diamond ; but it is very difficult to make 
this alloy. 

Silver, alloyed with iron in small quantities, causes 
the iron to be very hard and brittle, and very liable to 
corrode. 

Gold can be alloyed v^ith iron in any amount. It 
causes the iron to be more yellow and tough. This al- 
loy is principally used as a solder for small iron castings. 

Carbon makes iron more fusible. From one to two 
per cent, of carbon, added to iron, makes hard cast- 
iron, and from five to six per cent, makes number one 
foundry iron. More than five or six per cent, of carbon 
causes iron to be very brittle, and less than one per 
cent, of carbon causes iron to be very hard and brittle. 

Sulphur causes iron to be both hard and brittle, either 
when hot or cold, and it causes molten iron to be short- 
lived. Fuel with sulphur in it should not be used for 
melting iron in contact with the fuel. 

Phosphorus is very injurious to iron. One-half of 
one per cent, will cause iron to be very hard and brittle 
when cold, but it imparts a brilliant and white color to 
iron more perfectly than any other metal. 

Silicon makes iron brittle and hard. It has a similar 
effect on iron to phosphorus, but it is not near so injuri- 
ous to the iron. 

All cast-iron contains more or less carbon, sulphur, 
phosphorus, and silicon, and as these substances pre- 
dominate, they form hard or soft, strong or brittle irons ; 
and as all anthracit3 coal and coke contain more or less 
of these substances, the anthracite or coke iron is less 
pure and more variable than the charcoal irons; and 
on account of the uncertainty of the amount of these 
impurities contained in cast-iron, it is very difficult to 
make an alloy of iron and other metals with any cer- 
tainty as to the result, and for this reason alloyed iron 
is very little used. 



136 METALS AND ALLOYS. 



PLATINUM ALLOYS. 

Seven parts platiimiu, sixteen parts copper, and one 
part zinc, make an alloy tliat is almost eqnal to gold. 

Ten parts platinum and one part arsenic form an 
alloy that is fusible at a heat a little above redness. It 
can be cast into any desired shape, and the arsenic 
evaporated and the platinum left in its pure state, and 
infusible. 

Two parts platinum, three parts silver, and ten parts 
copper, make an alloy that is very elastic, and does not 
lose its elasticity by annealing, and it will bear ham- 
mering when red hot, or may be roiled and polished. 

Tin is sometimes alloyed with platinum, but the tin 
increases the fusibility of the platinum, so that the alloy 
is little better than an alloy of tin and lead. 

Platinum is but little used in forming alloys with 
other metals. 



GOLD ALLOYS. 

Gold leaf contains from four to ten grains of copper 
and silver to the ounce of leaf. 

The gold plate used by dentists contains about eighty 
parts gold and twenty parts copper. 

Five parts gold and live parts copper make a gold 
with a reddish cast. 

Ten parts gold, four parts copper, and one part silver, 
make a rich reddish-colored gold. 

Eighteen carats gold of a yellow tint is composed of 
sixty parts gold, eleven parts silver, and nine parts 
copper. 

Eighteen carats gold of a red tint is composed of 
sixty parts gold, seven parts silver, and thirteen parts 
copper. 

kSixteen carats gold is composed of sixty parts gold, 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 137 

ten parts silver, and twenty parts copper. This makes 
a very tough and springy alloy that is sometimes used 
for springs instead of steel. 

Fifteen carats gold of a red tint is composed of ten 
parts gold, one part silver, and four parts copper. 

Fifteen carats gold of a yellow tint is composed of 
twenty parts gold, seven parts silver, and five parts 
copper. This makes a very fine alloy that is much 
used by jewelers. 

Gold with a green tint is composed of sixty parts 
gold and ten and one-half parts silver. 

Gold with a gray tint is composed of forty parts gold 
and fifteen parts silver. 

Gold with a blue tint is composed of equal parts of 
gold and steel filings. 

Solder for eighteen carats gold is made of forty-eight 
parts eighteen-carats gold, four parts silver, and two 
parts copper. 

Solder for twenty-two carats gold is made of forty- 
eight parts twenty-two carats gold, four parts silver, 
and two parts copper. 

Solder for fifteen carats gold is made of twenty-four 
parts fifteen-carats gold, ten parts silver, and eight 
parts copper. 

In the above solders yellow brass is sometimes used 
instead of copper, as it makes the solder more fusible. 
When copper is used, a little zinc is sometimes added, 
but it is better to add the zinc in the shape of brass. 



SILVER ALLOYS. 

Nineteen parts silver and one part copper form an 
alloy for silver plate. 

Fifteen parts silver and four parts copper form a 
harder alloy than the above. It is also used for silver- 
plated spoons and trinkets. 



138 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

The silver coin of the United States is composed of 
nine parts silver and one part copper. 

Silver solder is composed of thirty-three parts silver, 
fifteen parts copper, and two parts old brass. 

Hard silver solder is composed of six parts silver and 
two parts old brass. 

Soft silver solder is composed of four parts silver to 
two parts old brass. This alloy is the one commonly 
used for soldering silver. Some add a little arsenic to 
it to make it more fusible and white, but when arsenic 
is added care should be taken to avoid its fumes, both 
when making the solder and w^hen using it. The old 
brass is used in these alloys to avoid wasting the zinc. 

Silver is sometimes soldered with the common solder 
used for soldering tin, but it will not receive a polish, 
and a nice job cannot be made with it. 

The alloys of silver are but little used in founding, 
for they all expand at the moment of solidification, if 
they contain much silver. 



G-ERMAN SILVER ALLOYS. 

German silver is composed of eighty parts copper, 
twenty parts nickel, and thirty-three and one-half parts 
zinc. 

The best quality of German silver is composed of one 
hundred parts copper, fifty parts nickel, and fifty parts 
zinc. 

The white copper, or packfong of the Chinese, which 
is the same as the German silver of the present day, is 
composed of forty-one parts copper, seventeen parts 
nickel, thirteen parts zinc, and two and one-half parts 
iron. 

A very hard German silver is made of eight parts 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 139 

copper, four parts zinc, two parts nickel, and one part 
iron. This alloy is very tenacious and ductile. 

A still harder German silver is made of sixteen parts 
copper, eight parts zinc, four parts nickel, and three 
parts iron. 

The finest quality of German silver that is made is 
composed of sixteen parts copper, eight parts nickel, 
and seven parts zinc. 

Ten parts copper shavings and four parts arsenic, 
arranged in a crucible in alternate layers, and covered 
with a layer of common salt, make a beautiful white 
alloy that is almost equal to silver. In making this 
alloy care must be taken to avoid the fumes of the 
arsenic. 



BISMUTH ALLOYS. 

Fifty parts bismuth, twenty-five parts lead, and 
twenty-five parts tin, form a very fusible alloy, which 
melts at 200« Fahrenheit. 

Fifty parts bismuth, thirty parts lead, and twenty 
parts tin, form a still more fusible alloy, which melts 
at 190O Fahrenheit. 

Eight parts bismuth, three parts lead, and two parts 
tin, form an alloy that melts at 212° Fahrenheit. 

Eighty parts bismuth, fifty parts lead, forty parts tin, 
and ten parts type-rietal, constitute a harder but less 
fusible alloy than any of the above mixtures. 

Soft solders and pewters are made of four parts bis- 
muth, eight parts lead, and six parts tin ; or two parts 
bismuth, two parts lead, and four parts tin. 

All the above alloys must be cooled quickly to avoid 
the separation of the metals. In order to get the metals 
thoroughly mixed, they should be repeatedly melted 
and poured into drops. , ^ 



140 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

BRASS ALLOYS. 

A very good brass is made of sixteen pounds of cop- 
per, eight pounds of zinc, and one-half pound of lead. 
The lead should be added after the copper and zinc 
have been melted together. These proportions of the 
different metals make the best brass that can be made 
with zinc and copper. For very light castings the lead 
should be omitted, as it makes the alloy less fluid ; but 
in heavy castings, it makes them more solid and clean. 

Button-brass consists of twenty-four parts copper to 
fifteen parts zinc. 

Red-brass is made of nine parts copper and one part 
zinc. 

Red-brass made at Hegermuhl consists of five and 
one-half parts copper and one part zinc. 

Brass that bears soldering well consists of sixteen 
parts copper and six parts zinc. 

Brass for ship-nails consists of twenty parts copper, 
sixteen parts zinc, and two parts iron. 

Red sheet-brass is made of nine parts copper and two 
parts zinc. 

Brass for sheathing, bolts, fastenings, etc., is com- 
posed of six parts copper and four parts zinc. This 
composition forms an alloy that may be rolled and 
worked at a red heat. 

Brass for pumps, and machinery requiring great 
tenacity, is made of thirty-two pounds copper, three 
pounds tin, and one pound zinc. 

Brass for gear-wheels, to have teeth cut in them, is 
made of thirty-two pounds copper^ three pounds tin, 
and two pounds old brass. If it is desirable to have 
the wheels harder, a little more tin may be added. 

An alloy for turned and finished work is made of 
thirty-two pounds copper, four pounds tin, and three 
pounds old brass. For nuts of coarse thread, one-half 
pound more tin may be added. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 141 

As more tin is added to alloys of copper and zinc, or 
copper and old brass, the alloy becomes harder. Razors 
have been made of an alloy of thirty-two parts copper, 
five parts tin, and five parts zinc. 

The best white hard metal for buttons is made of 
sixteen parts copper, two parts zinc, and one part tin. 



LEAD AND C O P P E R A L L O Y S. 

Seven parts lead and sixteen parts copper makes a 
very cheap alloy, but it is rather short, and easily broken. 

Two parts lead and eight parts copper makes a red- 
colored alloy that is very tough. 

A red-colored and ductile brass is made of two parts 
lead and sixteen parts copper. 

Ordinary pot-metal is made of six parts lead and 
sixteen parts copper. This alloy is very brittle when 
hot, but tough when cold. The alloys of copper and 
lead are all very brittle when hot. More than one-half 
pound of lead cannot be alloyed with one pound of cop- 
per, for the copper will not unite with the lead, and the 
lead will ooze out in cooling. Alloys of lead and copper 
are very little used. 

Lead and copper alloys have a bluish, leaden hue 
when much lead is used, and are principally used on 
account of their cheapness. 



BRONZE ALLOYS. 

A bronze in imitation of gold may be made of 45.5 
parts copper, 3.5 parts tin, and one part zinc — fifty 
parts. 

Bronze medals are generally cast of an alloy of fifty 



142 METALS AND ALLOTS, 

parts copper and 2.8 parts tin. This alloy is very- 
hard. 

A softer bronze for medals than the above is com- 
posed of forty-six parts copper and four parts tin. 

Ancient bronze nails were made of forty parts copper 
to one part tin, and were very flexible. 

Soft bronze is composed of eighteen pounds copper to 
two pounds tin. 

Hard bronze is composed of twenty pounds copper to 
five pounds tin. 

The ancient bronze mirrors are said to have con- 
tained sixteen parts copper to from seven to eight parts 
tin. 

At the time of Louis XIV of France, a period when 
the art of casting statues was much cultivated in France, 
siatues were cast of an alloy of 30.6 parts copper, 0.11 
parts tin, two parts zinc, and 0.6 parts lead. 

The statue of Louis XV is cast of 82.4 parts copper, 
10.3 parts zinc, four parts tin, and 3.2 parts lead. 

The bronze of the ancient Greeks consisted chiefly of 
copper and tin, but was frequently alloyed with arsenic, 
zinc, gold, silver and lead. All their shields and weap- 
ons of war were made of bronze, as well as coin, nails, 
kitchen utensils, etc. 

All the ancient nations seem to have understood the 
art of tempering bronze and copper, and the ancient 
Mexicans understood the art of converting bronze into 
edged instruments in a high degree, but the art of tem- 
pering and hardening bronze and copper has been lost 
to modern nations ; but as.we understand the working 
of iron better than the ancients, and have steel, an alloy 
of iron and carbon, which the ancients did not have, we 
do not miss this art much. 



METALS AND ALLOTS. 143 



BELL-METAL ALLOYS. 

One hundred and forty-four pounds copper, fifty- 
three pounds tin, and three pound iron, is said to make 
a superior bell. Iron, copper and tin do not unite well, 
if each is added separately to the other, but if tin-plate 
scraps are melted in a crucible together with tin, and 
then this tin and iron alloy added to the molten copper, 
it will unite readily. 

Another alloy that is highly recommended is com- 
posed of 53.5 parts copper, 6.11 parts tin, 2.13 parts 
lead, and 3.9 parts tin. This alloy has a good, sonorous 
sound, even if the mold is not thoroughly dry. 

House bells are made of four pounds tin to sixteen 
pounds copper. 

Soft musical bells are made of three pounds tin to 
sixteen pounds copper. 

Common bell metal consists of fifty pounds copper to 
firteen or twenty pounds tin. 

The silver bells of Rouen, France, consist of forty 
pounds copper, five pounds tin, three pounds zinc, and 
two pounds lead. 

Too much tin causes bell metal to be brittle. 

The gongs or cymbals and tam-tams of the Chinese 
are composed of forty pounds copper to ten pounds tin. 
To give these musical instruments their proper tone, 
they are plunged in cold water while hot, after being 
cast ; cooling in water deprives the metal of almost all 
its sound. It is tempered and very slowly cooled, 
which imparts to it that peculiarly powerful sound. 

If bell metal is suddenly cooled, it becomes less dense 
and hard, and is increased in malleability ; but the 
tone of the metal is decidedly impaired, and bells ought 
never to be cast in damp molds. When bells are cooled 
suddenly they should jbe re-heated and tempered by 
cooling slowly. 



144 3IETALS AND ALLOYS, 



TYPE-METAL. 

Six parts lead and two parts antimony form a very 
hard and brittle alloy used for small type. 

Eight parts lead and two parts antimony form a 
softer alloy that is used for larger type. 

Ten parts lead and two parts antimony form an al- 
loy that is still softer, and is used for medium-sized 
type. 

Fourteen parts lead and two parts antimony form an 
alloy that is softer than any of the above alloys, and is 
used for the largest sized type. 

A small amount of tin is sometimes added to the 
above mixtures, and some type-founders add one or two 
per cent, of copper. Both of these metals improve the 
quality of the type, when used in small quantities. 

Forty parts lead, eight parts antimony, and two parts 
tin, form an alloy that is used for stereotype plates. 

Six parts lead and two parts tin form coarse solder, 
used by plumbers. This alloy melts at about 500*^ 
Fahrenheit. 

Two parts lead and four parts tin form the fine sol- 
der used by tinners. It melts at about 350° Fahrenheit. 



LEAD ALLOYS. 

Ninety-four parts lead and six parts antimony form 
an alloy that may be rolled into sheets, and is a little 
harder than pure lead. This alloy is much used for 
sheathing for ships. 

Twenty-four parts lead and four parts antimony form 
an alloy that is used in place of babbitt metal for filling 
small boxes and bearings. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 14D 

Twenty parts lead and four parts antimony form an 
alloy that is a little softer than the above, and is used 
for the same purpose. Either of these may be hardened 
by the addition of more antimony ; but care must be 
taken to not use too much antimony, for it will cause 
the alloy to lose its fluidity, and it cannot be run into the 
boxes. 

All alloys of lead and antimony are rendered more 
fluid by melting them under a covering of oil. 

Five parts lead and five parts tin make a beau- 
tiful white alloy, used for organ pipes. The mottled, 
or crystalline appearance, so much admired in the pipe, 
is caused by using an abundance of tin. 

One hundred parts lead and two parts arsenic form 
an alloy from which drop-shot is made. 

Eighteen parts lead, four parts antimony, and one 
part bismuth, form an alloy that expands on cooling. 
This alloy is much used for metallic patterns for snap- 
moldings. 



SPELTER-SOLDER ALLOYS. 

A good solder for copper and iron is composed of 
three parts zinc and four parts copper. 

A softer solder that is used for ordinary brass work 
is composed of equal r)arts of zinc and copper. 

A very hard but fusible solder is composed of two 
parts zinc and one part copper. This solder is so hard 
and brittle that it can be easily crumbled in a mortar 
when cold. 

The two first solders are first alloyed and cast into 
ingots. The ingots are allowed to cool in the mold and 
then re-heated nearly to redness upon a charcoal fire, 
and are broken up on the anvil, or in a mortar, into a 
finely granulated state, for use. 
10 



146 3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 



HARD-SOLDER ALLOYS. 

The following metals and alloys are usually used as 
solder in the art of hard-soldering : 

Fine or pure gold, rolled or beaten into sheets, and 
cut into shreds, or small pieces, is used as the solder 
for soldering chemical vessels made of platinum. 

Silver solder, composed of four parts silver and two 
parts yellow brass, is much used for hard soldering. 
The brass is used in this solder, so that the opera- 
tor can tell when the solder is fused, by seeing the 
blue blaze caused by the burning of the zinc. This 
solder is either rolled into thin sheets, and cut into 
small bits for use, or is granulated while hot. 

The gold solder, the composition of which is given 
under the head of gold alloys, is rolled into thin sheets 
and used for soldering gold alloys. Gold soldering is 
generally done with the blow-pipe, as the work is sel- 
dom large enough to require the Ibrazier's hearth. 

Pure copper, in shreds, is sometimes used for solder- 
ing iron. 

Spelter-solders, granulated while hot, are used for 
soldering iron, copper, brass, gun-metal, German-silver, 
and sometimes for gold and silver alloys. 

As a cheap substitute for silver solder, the white, or 
button-solders are commonly employed for the white 
alloys, such as German-silver, gun-metal, etc. 

The flux most generally used in hard-soldering is 
borax. In fact, there is very little hard-soldering done 
without the aid of this flux. It is generally granulated, 
and used in the dry state for large or heavy work, and 
for small work it is generally used in solution with 
water. 



METALS AND ALLOYS, 147 

SOFT-SOLDER ALLOYS. 

The soft solder used by plumbers, called sealed 
solder, is composed of two parts tin and four parts lead. 
This solder melts at about 450^ Fahrenheit. 

The common solder used by tinsmiths is composed of 
four parts tin and two parts lead. This solder melts at 
about 350<^ Fahrenheit. 

The bismuth solder is composed of seven parts bis- 
muth, five parts lead, and three parts tin. This solder 
melts at about 225° Fahrenheit. 

All the tin and lead solders become more fusible the 
more tin they contain. Thus, one part tin and ten 
parts lead melt at about 550° Fahrenheit, while six 
parts tin and one part lead melt at about 375° Fahren- 
heit ; and all the tin, lead and bismuth solders become 
more fusible the more lead and bismuth they contain. 

The fluxes used in soft soldering are : borax, sal-am- 
monia, chloride of zinc, common resin, Venice turpen- 
tine, tallow, and sweet oil. Those most commonly used 
for ordinary work, are : common resin and chloride of 
zinc. 



BABBIT ANTI-FRICTION 
METAL. 

This metal is made of one part copper, three parts 
tin, two parts antimony, and three parts more tin are 
added after the composition is in the molten state. 
This composition is called hardening, and when the 
metal is used for filling boxes, two parts tin are used to 
one of hardening. The above alloy constitutes the best 
anti-attrition metal in use, but on account of its expense 
it is very little used. The anti-attrition metals com- 
monly used are principally composed of lead, antimony 
and a little tin, but they are not near so good as the above 



148 . 3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 



FLUXES FOR ALLOYS. 

The best flux for alloys of copper and tin is rosin. 
It should be added when the metals are almost melted. 

Another good flux is sal-ammonia. In using this flux 
the copper is usually melted first and the flux added. 
When it is in the mushy state, after the flux has been 
put in, the zinc and tin are then added. 

A good flux for old brass is common rosin-soap. It 
should be added in small lumps and stirred down into 
the metal when in the molten state. 

In forming alloys of diff"erent metals, the molten met- 
als should always be kept under a covering of black 
glass or pulverized charcoal, to prevent oxidation. 



BLACK FLUX. 

Black flux, as it is commonly called, is composed of 
seven parts of crude tartar, six parts of saltpetre, two 
parts of common bottle glass, and by some a small 
amount of calcined borax is added. These ingredients 
are first finely pounded and mixed together, and then 
gradually heated in an iron pot or ladle so as to burn 
them together. Care should be taken to not overheat 
the mixture ; and as soon as it is thoroughly melted 
and mixed together, it should be removed from the fire 
and allowed to cool. After it has cooled it is finely 
pulverized and sifted, and is then ready for use. It has 
a great affinity for moisture, and should be protected 
against it by being placed in glass bottles and the bot- 
tles corked up until wanted for use. This is the most 
powerful flux that can be made. It is but little used 
in forming or fluxing alloys, but it is principally used 
by assayers in assaying of diff'erent kinds of metallic 
ores. In these assays the quantity of black flux used 



3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 149 

varies according to the quality of the ores, but the 
amount generally used is about an equal amount of ore 
and flux. The ore is first roasted and then finely 
broken up and mixed with the flux, and the whole is 
then rapidly heated in a crucible. If the flux does not 
make the slag sufficiently fluid to allow the metal to 
settle, a smalj amount of calcined borax is added, which 
makes the slag more liquid and permits the metal to 
pass to the bottom of the crucible. The crucible is then 
removed from the fire and the mixture either poured 
from it or allowed to cool in it. After it has cooled, the 
slag is knocked off with a hammer and a button of 
metal obtained. When using this flux the clay cruci- 
ble, without either coal or plumbago, is preferred, for 
the flux is very hard on a crucible that contains either 
of these substances. Black flux is used by some foun- 
drymen in melting the fine scrap sweepings from the 
floor, and dross and refuse from the crucibles, by melt- 
ing these in a crucible with black flux. They obtain 
considerable amounts of metal from them that would 
otherwise be lost. In melting this refuse with black 
flux, the common clay crucible should always be used. 



NATURE AND CHARACTER OF 
ALLOYS. 

Alloys of gold, silver and copper are generally supe- 
rior in strength to any of the more fusible metals, and 
may be forged either when red hot or cold. These 
three metals seem to unite in any proportions, and 
always form an alloy that is malleable when either hot 
or cold. 

Pure gold is but little used in the arts ; it is then too 
soft. It is generally alloyed with silver and copper, 
both to harden it and depreciate its value. Alloyed 



150 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

I 

with copper, it forms gold of a red tint ; with silver, it 
forms gold of a green tint ; and alloyed with both cop- 
per and silver, it gives intermediate tints. 

Pure silver is but little used alone ; it is generally 
alloyed with a small amount of copper, which does not 
change its color, and greatly improves its malleability 
and working qualities. 

When gold, silver or copper are alloyed with the 
more fusible metals — lead, tin and zinc — the alloy is 
less malleable and ductile than alloys of gold, silver 
and copper. They are extreme red-short, and when 
heated to redness they will fly to pieces under the ham- 
mer ; and alloys of brass, bell metal, etc., must be treated 
with precaution, and should never be taken out of the 
mold while red hot. 

Alloys of two parts copper and one part zinc are very 
soft and malleable, and may be drawn by hammering, 
or easily cut with a file ; but an alloy of one part copper 
and two parts zinc is as hard and brittle as glass, and 
may be easily pulverized. 

An alloy of two parts copper and one part lead makes 
a soft, malleable metal, but is inferior to an alloy of 
copper and zinc. In alloys of one part copper and one 
part lead, the lead will ooze out in cooling. In alloys 
of one part copper and two parts lead, the lead will not 
unite, but will sink to the bottom when cooling. 

Alloys of six parts copper and one part tin make a 
very hard alloy, and the alloy gets harder and whiter 
the more tin is added. Alloys of tin and copper should 
not be too rapidly exposed to the air, for if a large per- 
centage of tin is used, it will strike to the surface and 
ooze out, or make hard spots in the casting. 

Alloys of zinc and lead cannot be made without the 
addition of arsenic, unless the lead is alloyed in a very 
small quantity. 

Alloys of zinc and tin are very hard and brittle, and 
are but little used alone. By the addition of copper to 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 151 

alloys of these two metals, the alloy is rendered more 
malleable and soft. 

Arsenic makes all alloys hard and brittle, and is very 
dangerous to use. It is seldom used except to impart 
fluidity to the very infusible metals. 

Alloys of lead and tin are very malleable and ductile 
when cold, but at a temperature of about 200° Fahren- 
heit, they lose the power of cohesion and are exceed- 
ingly brittle. The alloys of tin and lead partake of the 
general nature of these two metals. They are soft and 
malleable when cold, even when a small amount of 
brittle antimony has been added. 

An alloy of six parts lead and one part antimony is 
very soft and malleable, but an alloy of three parts lead 
and one part antimony is very hard and brittle ; and 
an alloy of one part lead and one part antimony is 
harder and more brittle than antimony. 



FUSIBILITY OF ALLOYS. 

In forming alloys of the different metals, they do not 
combine with each other in their solid state (with the 
exception of mercury), owing to their chemical affinity 
being counteracted by the force of cohesion ; and in 
order to form combinations of them, it is necessary to 
liquify at least one of them, in which case they will 
unite, provided they have a chemical affinity for each 
other ; thus bell metal and brass is formed, when pieces 
of tin, or zinc, are put into molten copper ; and in the 
formation of alloys, of this nature, where one of the 
metals are more fusible than the other, the less fusible 
metal should be fused first, and the more fusible metals 
added either in the molten or solid state. As the fusi- 
ble metals are added, the temperature of the alloy 
should be reduced, to prevent oxidation, or burning 



152 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

away of the fusible metals ; for this reason, it is better 
to add the more fusible metals in the solid state, as by 
so doing the temperature of the metals is decreased. 
Alloys are always more fusible than the less fusible 
metals, of which they are composed, and in some cases 
are more fusible than the most fusible metal they con- 
tain, as is the case in alloys of tin, lead and bismuth. 
Some founders, in order to have the metal thoroughly 
united, first fuse the metals together, and cast them 
into ingots and re-melt them for use ; this practice is 
bad, for in the after-fusion there is always more or less 
of the more fusible metal burnt away, and it is hard ta 
determine the proportions of the alloy, or to have any 
certainty as to the quality of the castings. In melting 
ingots, or scrap alloys, they should be fused as rapidly 
as possible, and at the lowest available temperature, se- 
as to avoid oxidation. 

Some of the metals are almost infusible ; and when 
heated to the highest heat, in a crucible, they refuse to^ 
melt and become fluid ; but any of the metals can be 
melted, by combination with the more fusible metals ; 
thus, platinum, which is infusible with any ordinary 
heat, can be fused readily, when combined with zinc, 
tin or arsenic ; this metal, by combination with arsenic^ 
is rendered so fluid that it may be cast into any desired 
shape, and the arsenic may then be evaporated by a 
mild heat, and leave the platinum, in its pure state, 
cast into any desired shape. Nickel, which barely fuses 
alone, will enter into combination with copper, forming 
German silver, an alloy that is more fusible than nickel 
and less fusible than copper ; this alloy is rendered the 
whiter, harder and less fusible the more nickel is added. 
The less fusible metals, when fused in contact with the 
more fusible metals, seem to dissolve in the fusible 
metals : rather than melt the surface of the metal, is 
gradually washed down, until the entire mass is dis- 
solved or liquified, and reduced to the state of alloys. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 153 

In forming alloys of brass, in furnaces where heat 
enough cannot be obtained to fuse \hQ copper sepa- 
rately, the alloy may be formed by heating the copper 
to the highest heat, and then adding the zinc or tin, in 
the molten state, so as not to reduce the temperature of 
the copper. 

In forming alloys with new metals, it is usual to melt 
the less fusible metals first, and then add the more fusi- 
ble metals, and mix them by stirring them well togeth- 
er ; the rod used in stirring them should be heated to 
redness, to prevent lowering the temperature or chil- 
ling the metal. In mixing alloys for bells, the alloy 
should be well stirred with an iron rod, well heat- 
ed, in which case part of the iron is dissolved, and com- 
bines with the alloy, and gives the bell a better tone ; » 
but alloys of brass, that are to be turned, or finished, 
should never be stirred with an iron rod, for the iron 
dissolved from the rod will cause hard specks in the 
alloy if not thoroughly mixed. In forming fine alloys, 
the alloy should be stirred with a rod of the least fusible 
metal contained in the alloy, or with a wood stick ; 
the wood stick, in many cases, is better than a metallic 
rod, for it causes the metal to boil slightly, and unite 
more thoroughly ; but the wood stick cannot be used in 
a small crucible, with only a small amount of metal. 
"When alloys are made that contain only a very small 
quantity of a metal that is difficult to fuse, as in pew- 
ter, it is scarcely possible to throw into the melted tin 
the half per cent of melted copper, with any certainty 
of the two metals being properly combined; and in 
forming this alloy, it is customary to melt the copper in 
a crucible and then add to it two or three times its 
weight of melted tin ; this dilutes the copper and 
makes an alloy, called temper or hardening. This 
alloy is very fusible and is melted in an iron ladle, and 
is added to molten tin, or lead, to give it the desired 
hardness, and form pewter. 



154 3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 

The metal mercury will bring about triple combina- 
tions of metals, even when the metals have no chemical af- 
finity for each other, either when the metals are melted, 
or in the solid state, as in water-gilding, where the silver, 
copper, or metal intended to be gilded is first made 
chemically clean by washing in acids and water, and 
then rubbed over with an amalgam of gold containing 
about eight parts of mercury. This amalgam immedi- 
ately attaches itself to the metal, and it is only neces- 
sary to evaporate the mercury, which only requires a 
very low heat, and the gold is left firmly attached to 
the metal ; and it is only necessary to brighten it by 
burnishing. Water-silvering is accomplished in the 
same way, and iron or copper, and many other metals, 
may be tinned in the same way. An amalgam of tin 
and mercury is made so as to be soft and easily crum- 
bled. The metal to be tinned is cleaned in the same 
way as in gilding with gold, or by turning or filling, 
and the amalgam is then rubbed on and the mercury 
evaporated by heat. This process of tinning is called 
cold-tinning. Other pieces of metal can be attached to 
a metal that has been tinned in this way, by soldering. 

In the manufacture of tin-plate, the iron plate to be 
tinned is first scoured and made chemically clean. 
It is then immersed in a bath of pure molten tin, cov- 
ered with resin and tallow to prevent oxidation. The 
iron plate remains in this bath for a short time, and the 
tin unites, or becomes alloyed with the surface of the 
plate, and comes out of the bath perfectly coated with 
tin, and is called tin-plate. In this process the iron 
plate must be heated to the temperature of the molten 
tin before combination takes place. But by the aid of 
mercury the iron plate may be tinned at the atmos- 
pheric temperature. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 155 



BRASS FURNACES. 

Furnaces for the melting of brass and similar alloys 
may be bailt of common brick and lined with fire- 
brick ; but the best furnaces for this purpose are made 
with a boiler-plate caisson from twenty to thirty inches 
in diameter, and thirty or forty inches high. This 
caisson is usually set down in a pit, with the top of it 
only ten or twelve inches above the foundry floor. The 
ash-pit, or opening around the furnace, is covered with 
a loose wooden grating, which may be removed for tak- 
ing out the ashes. The iron caisson is lined with fire- 
brick, the same as a cupola. The lining is usually six 
inches or more in thickness. The- diameter of the fur- 
nace on the inside should not be more than four or five 
inches larger than the diameter of the crucible intended 
to be used in it ; for if the furnace is too large, more 
fuel and more time will be required to melt the metal. 
These furnaces are liable to burn out hollow around 
where the crucible sets, and to avoid a waste of fuel, 
they should be straightened up with fire-clay and fire- 
sand, and always kept as near straight as possible. 
These furnaces are sometimes 'built square on the in- 
side, but the square furnaces are not near so good, and 
require more fuel than the round ones do. A good brass 
foundry usually has three or more of these furnaces. 
They are generally of diff'erent diameters to suit diff'er- 
ent sized crucibles, and when it is desirable to make a 
large casting, that requires more metal than <;an be 
melted in one crucible, two or more furnaces are used 
to melt the metal. But when more metal is required 
for a casting than can be melted in three or four cru •- 
bles, the metal is then melted in the reverberatory fur- 
nace, or in the common iron foundry cupola. When 
melting brass in a cupola, the copper is usually charged 
and melted before charging the zinc or more fusible 



150 ji/<:tals and alloys. 

metals, and in some cjisoh the zinc or tin is not pnt, into 
the ('npola. at all, but is melted in an iron ladle and 
added to tlie copper after it lias been dr;iwn out of the 
cupola. When the amount of brass to be inelt(Ml in a 
cupola is small, and the cupola has a good draft, the 
metal is usually melted without a blast; but when the 
metal amounts to several tons, a, blast is gc^ntn-aJly used. 
The swivel cui)ola (l^^ig. H)) is well adapted to the 
melting of brass, and is often us(m1 for that purpose. 
The co^innon brass furnace usually depends upon a 
natural draft, and the furnace is connected with the 
stack by a small iiue on the back side of the furnace, 
near the top. Thnu^ or more furnaces are usually con- 
nected with one stack, and each furnace is su])plied 
with a separate damper for regulating the In^it. WIumi 
the stack is not high enough to give the furnace a good 
strong draft, the ash-pit is closed uj) tight, and a mild 
blast turned into the pit ; for better melting ca,n be 
done by turning the blast int(» the pit and allowing it 
to lind its way up through the grates, than by putting 
the blast directly into the furnace by means of tuyeres. 
Tlu^se small brass furnaces are of easy construction ; 
but as a temporary (\vpedi(Mit almost any close fire may 
be used, including some of the common healing stoves, 
although it is nnich more convenient that the lire be 
open at the top, so that the contents of the crucible nniy 
be seen without removing it from the lire. Such stoves, 
however, radiate heat in a somewhat inconvenient nuin- 
ner, and to a nuich greater extent than the common 
brass furnace, which is lined with lire-brick or clay, 
and the lining con(tentra,tes the heat and economizes 
the fuel. The brass furnace is often used for melting 
iron in a. crucible, and they answer eipially as well for 
nn^lting iron as for brass, when the furnace has a good 
draft. Small amounts of brass are frinpiently melted 
in the ordinary blacksmith's lire; but there is consid- 
erable risk of cracking the crucible at the point exposed 



MliJTAIjS AND ALLOYS, 157 

to tho blast. A wr()n<j;}it-ir()ii pot ih HoniotimoR ufiorl for 
iiicltiiif^' .small aiuoiiiitH of ])rasH, but it iis not very (Ui- 
(liM'iri*^'", (or tb(; br.'iMS will .soon cauHO it to l)Mrii into 
liohvs iuid l(^ii,k. TIk! I'lKil iis(^(l in tin; br;i,.ss riirna.ce is 
•4<Miorally liard coal or coke, wliich Ih brokcMi into lunipH 
about the Hi/e of liens' e^'-<^H for use. ll^itlier of tluise 
Huils will do ^'ood melting, but tho coke will gen(;rato 
li(^at r.'Lsbn* than the coal, and will do fjister iiK^ltin^-, 
wliich will prevent th(5 oxidizing of tin; nictal ; and for 
this rciason th(5 coke is to be pr(!f(5rred when it can h(; 
obtained. (jras-hous(i coke ina,de from can n(; I coal is not 
lit for I'ucil in tin; brass furnace 5. 

Th(5 fusible; nuitals, or those; not rccpiiring a red-heat, 
such as lea.d, tin, //inc, etc., are /4'(;n<;rally melted in a 
cattt-iron ladle or ])ot. When tVie metals are melted in 
large (piantiti(;s for small work, such as ty{)e-founding, 
the; [)ot is usually S(;t in brick-work, with a iir(;-[)laco 
and a,sh-i)it beneath it. In this pot the; metal is k(;pt 
in the molten state all the; tim«', and di[)ped out with a 
small hand-ladle for ns(!. When it is only desirable; to 
m(;lt a small epiaritity of metal, it is usually melted in 
the; small haTid-ladIc;, or in the ordiTiary plumlxir's pot 
over an open lire. 



CRUCIBLES. 

The word crue'ibh; is d(;riv(!d from tin; word r.rux, a 
cross ; it is said that b(;ror(; the discovery of the gases, 
that explosions, strange noises and lurid llames had 
been seen in mines, caverns, etc., and the alchemists 
■whose earthen vessels often explod(;d with terrilic vio- 
lence, commenced their ex})eriments with prayer, and 
placed on their crucibles the sign of the cross ; hence 
the name crucible, from crux^ or crucis, a cross. 

All the metals, and alloys of metals, with the excep- 
tion of iron, and the very fusible metals, are melted in 



158 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

crucibles. There are several different kinds of cruci- 
bles ; the principal ones in use are, the Hessian pots, 
the English brown or clay pots, the Cornish and the 
Wedgewood crucibles, all extensively used for melting 
alloys of brass, bell-metal, gun-metal, etc., but they are 
very brittle, and seldom stand more than one heat, yet 
they are generally sold cheap, and some founders prefer 
to use a crucible only once, as they think it more safe, for 
crucibles often crack or burn through on the second 
heat. The best crucibles, for all kinds of alloys, are the 
Black-Lead crucibles ; these crucibles are sold higlier 
than any of the clay crucibles, but they are more refrac- 
tory than the clay crucibles, and may be used for three 
or more successive heats, without any danger of their 
cracking or burning through. They are not so open and 
porous as the clay crucibles, and do not absorb so much 
of the metal, and for this reason they are to be pre- 
ferred for melting valuable metals. When about to use 
a crucible, it should be heated gradually, by putting it 
in the furnace when the fire is started, or by setting it 
on top of the tyle, or covering of the furnace, with the 
mouth down ; it should be heated in this way until it 
is almost too hot to hold in the hands. Before it is put 
into the hot furnace, some founders always stand a tire- 
brick on its end, in the bottom of the furnace, to set the 
crucible on, this prevents the crucible from settling with 
the fuel as it is burnt away. This way of supporting the 
crucible is a good idea, when the furnace has a poor 
draft, and the metal is melted slow, and it is necessary 
to replenish the -fuel before the metal can be melted ; 
but in furnaces where the metal is melted quick, and it 
is not necessary to replenish the fuel in the middle of 
the heat, the crucible should be allowed to settle with 
the fuel, as the heat will then be more concentrated 
upon it. After the metal has been poured from the 
crucible into the mold, or ingot, the crucible should 
always be returned to the furnace and allowed to cool 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 159 

off with the furnace to prevent it from cracking. In 
forming alloys of brass, etc., a cover or lid for the cru- 
cible is seldom used, but a covering of charcoal, or some 
kind of flux is generally used for the metal. The 
metal to be melted in the crucible is generally packed 
into the crucible before it is put into the furnace ; and 
when it is desirable to put in more metal, after the 
metal has been fused, it is put in with the tongs, if the 
metal is in large pieces; but when the metal to be 
added is in small pieces, it is put into the crucible 
through a long funnel-shaj^ed pipe ; the small end of 
this pipe is used for putting metals into the crucible, 
and the large end is used for covering the crucible, to 
prevent the small pieces of fuel from falling into the 
crucible. When putting fresh fuel into the furnace, 
after a crucible has been charged with metal, a few 
pieces of large coke should always be laid on top of it, 
so as to concentrate the heat upon the metal. Cruci- 
bles of all sizes can be obtained from the manufactur- 
ers, and small ones can generally be obtained at any 
drug store ; but where it is impossible to purchase cru- 
cibles, the founder often has to manufacture them, as I 
have had to do on several occasions, when making 
assays of different minerals, in parts of the country 
where it was impossible to obtain crucibles. In mak- 
ing a crucible, the first thing necessary is to procure a 
white, tenaceous, plastic clay, which will stand the 
fire without melting ; a good fire-clay, mixed with 
about one-half coarse sand, will make a good crucible, 
but where fire-clay cannot be obtained, we must use 
some other clay, which should be mixed with some old 
fire-brick finely broken up ; and if they cannot be ob- 
tained, then pieces of porcelain, Chinese ware, or com- 
mon stoneware, may be broken up and used with the 
common clay. If none of these articles can be obtained, 
then quartz rock»«^or sandstone may be used. They 
should be heated to redness, and suddenly cooled by 



160 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

throwing into cold water, after which they are broken 
up into a coarse sand and mixed with just enough clay 
to make it adhere together. Too small a per cent, of 
clay has a tendency to weaken the crucible, and too 
large a quantity makes it liable to crack when heated. 
The mixture of sand and clay must be well worked 
with the hands before molding it into the crucible. 
When forming the crucible a wood block of the desired 
shape may be used for a pattern, and the crucible 
formed by coating the mixture on to the block and 
allowing it to get partially dry before removing the 
block. When it is desirable to make small crucibles, 
a good-shaped glass tumbler may be used for a pattern, 
and the mixture coated either on the inside or outside 
of it, so as to make the sized crucible desired. To 
prevent the mixture from sticking to the pattern, the 
pattern may be covered with paper before applying 
the mixture. The bottom of the crucible should always 
be a little thicker than the sides. When a crucible 
has been formed it should be allowed a few days to 
dry in the sun or in a gentle heat, as it takes some 
time for the w^ater to evaporate from the clay. When 
the crucible has been sufficiently dried it is then baked 
or exposed to a strong red heat. The baking may be 
done in a common cook-stove oven br in an open fire. 
When baked in an open fire the crucible should be 
set in the centre of the fire, and the fuel, either 
wood or coal, piled all around it, so as to heat it evenly 
and prevent breakage. After it is sufficiently baked 
it should be covered over with the hot ashes to protect 
it from the sudden rush of cold air which will follow 
the exhaustion of the fire. If it is desirable to have 
a cover for the crucible, some small slabs may be made 
of clay and burnt with the crucible. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 1(31 



CUPEL. 



The cupel is a small flat cup resembling the bottom 
of a crucible. It is generally from two to four inches 
in diameter, and from a half inch to an inch and a half 
deej), with a flat bottom. It is generally used for refln- 
ing gold and silver, and is sometimes used by jewelers 
in forming alloys and melting metals. The cupel is 
made of finely pulverized bone-ashes and wood-ashes 
mixed together. In forming the cupel the white bone 
and wood-ashes must be well pulverized and sifted, 
and only as much water mixed with them as will cause 
them to adhere slightly. Care must be taken to not 
use too much or too little water, for extremes either way 
are equally injurious. The ashes should be pressed 
into the desired shape, and a strong pressure brought 
to bear upon them to unite them properly. The fresh 
cupels are then air-dried, which may be done in the sun 
or on top of a stove. After they are thoroughly dried 
they are ready for use. Without baking or burning, 
the cupel is easily broken, and requires gentle handling. 



BLOW-PIPE. 

The blow-pipe and an alcohol lamp are largely used 
in hard soldering, tempering small tools, and by chem- 
ists and mineralogists as an important means of analy- 
sis, etc., and for these uses the blow-pipe has received 
very great attention, both from mechanics and distin- 
guished philosophers. Most of the small blow-pipes 
are supplied with air from the lungs of the operator, 
and the larger ones, or where the blow-pipe is brought 
into general use, it is supplied with air from a bellows 
moved with the foot, or from a vessel in which the air 
has been condensed by a syringe, or from a small rotary 
11 



162 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

fan. The ordinary blow-pipe is a light brass or tin 
tube about ten or twelve inches long, and from one-half 
to one-fourth of an inch in diameter at the end for the 
mouth, and one-sixteenth or less at the jet end. The 
small end is slightly curved, so that the flame may 
be thrown immediately under the observation of the 
operator. There are several other kinds of blow-pipes 
for the mouth, which are fitted with various contriv- 
ances, such as a series of apertures of different diameters, 
joints for portability and for placing the jet at different 
angles, and with a ball for collecting the condensed 
vapor from the lungs ; but none of these are in common 
use. The blow-pipe may be supplied with air from the 
lungs with muQh more effect than might be expected, 
and with a little practice a constant stream can be 
maintained for several minutes, if the cheeks of the 
operator are kept fully distended with wind, so that 
their elasticity alone will serve to impel a part of the 
air, while the ordinary breathing is carried on through 
the nostrils for a fresh supply. 

The heat created by the blow-pipe is so intense that 
fragments of almost all the metals may be melted when 
they are supported upon charcoal, with the heat from a 
common tallow or wax candle. The most intense heat 
from the blow-pipe is the pointed flame, and the hottest 
part of the flame is the extreme point of the inner, or 
blue flame. Large particles of ore or metals that re- 
quire less heat, are held somewhat nearer to the candle 
or lamp, so as to receive a greater portion of the flame, 
and when a very mild degree of heat is wanted on a 
small piece of metal, it is held further away. By thus 
increasing or decreasing the distance between the can- 
dle or lamp and the object to be melted, any desirable 
degree of heat may be obtained. When only a minute 
portion of metal is to be heated, the pointed flame is 
used with a mild blast ; but when it is desirable to heat 
a large surface of metal, as in soldering and brazing, a 



3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 163 

much larger flame is used. This is produced by using 
a lamp with a large wick, plentifully supplied with oil, 
which produces a large flame. The blow-pipe used has 
a larger opening than the one used for the pointed 
flame, and it is held a little distance from the flame, 
and blown vigorously, so as to spread it out over a large 
surface of the work. This is called the bush, or sheet 
flame. The work to be brazed or soldered by this flame 
is generally supported upon charcoal. 

When melting metals with the blow-pipe, the metal 
to be melted is laid upon a flat piece of charcoal, which 
has previously been scooped out slightly hollow in the 
center, to prevent the metal from running off when 
melted. If it is desirable to run the metal into a mold 
when melted,' a small groove, or lip, is cut in the char- 
coal, and when the metal is sufficiently heated it is 
poured into the mold. In this way the jewelers melt 
most all their gold, silver, etc., when making rings and 
other jewelry. The cupel is also used for melting 
metals in with the blow-pipe, but it is not so good as 
the charcoal, for it is liable to break from being heated 
unevenly, and spill the metals. There are several dif- 
ferent kinds of stationary or bench blow-pipes used by 
jewelers, braziers, etc.; but as the blow-pipe is but little 
used in the art of founding, I shall not describe them 
in this work. 



BRAZIER'S HEARTH. 

In soldering or brazing large work of copper, silver^ 
etc., an open fire is used, called the brazier's hearth. 
For large and long work, this hearth is made with a 
flat iron plate about four feet by three, which is sup- 
ported by four legs, and stands on the floor a sufficient 
distance out from the wall so that the operator can get 
all around it. In the center of this plate there is a de- 



164 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

pression about six inches deep and about two feet long 
by one wide, for containing the fuel and fire. The fire 
is depressed in this way so that the surface of the plate 
may serve for the support of large work, such as long 
tubes, large plates, etc. The rotary fan is commonly 
used for the blast. The tuyere iron used is similar to 
those used for the common blacksmith's forge, but with 
a larger opening for admitting the blast to the fire. 
The nasal, or top of this tuyere iron, is fitted loosely 
into grooves, so as to admit of easy renewal, as they 
are burnt out in a very short time, and must be replaced 
to do good work. The fire is sometimes used the full 
length of the hearth, in which case a long or continuous 
tuyere is used. Occasionally two separate fires are used 
on the same dearth. In this case they are separated 
by a loose iron plate. The hood, or mouth of the stack, 
is suspended from the ceiling over the hearth with 
counterpoise weights, so that it may be raised or low- 
ered, according to the magnitude of the work. The 
common blacksmith's forge fire is frequently used for 
brazing. It is temporarily converted into a brazier's 
hearth by being built hollow around the fire, and the 
fire removed from the wall or flue, out into the center of 
the hearth. But the brazing operation injures the fuel 
so that it cannot be again used for ordinary forging of 
iron or steel. For want of either the brazier's hearth 
or the blacksmith's forge, the ordinary grate may be 
used, or it is better to employ a brazier or chafing dish 
containing charcoal, and the fire urged with a hand- 
bellows, which should be blown by an assistant, so that 
the operMor may have both hands at liberty to manage 
the work and fuel. The best fuel for brazing is char- 
coal, but coke or cinders are generally used. Fresh 
coals are highly injurious to the work on account of the 
sulphur they contain, and soft or bituminous coal cannot 
be used at all until it is well charred or converted into 
cinders. Lead is equally as injurious in the fire for 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 165 

brazing as for welding iron and steel, or in forging 
gold, silver, or copper, for the lead is oxidized and at- 
taches itself to the metals that are being brazed or 
welded, and prevents the uniting of the metals ; and in 
all cases it renders the metal brittle and unserviceable. 
There are many kinds of work which requires the appli- 
cation of heat having the intensity of the forge fire or 
the furnace, but in many of these cases it is only desir- 
able to heat a small portion of the work and avoid soil- 
ing the surface of the remainder, and also to have the 
work under the observation and guidance of the operator, 
as in brazing or soldering small articles of jewelry, sil- 
ver plate, etc. In these cases the blow-pipe and pointed 
flame is generally used, and in many cases the work is 
supported upon charcoal so as to concentrate the heat 
upon it. 



BURNING TOG-ETHER. 

The process of uniting two or more pieces of metal, 
by partial fusion, is called burning together. This 
operation differs from the ordinary soldering, in the 
fact that the uniting, or intermediate, metal is the same 
as those to be joined ; and there is generally no flux 
used, but the metals are simply brought almost to the 
fusing point, and united together. The operation of 
burning together is, in many cases, of great import- 
ance, for when the operation is successfully performed, 
the work is stronger than when soldered, for all parts 
of it are alike, and will expand and contract evenly 
when heated ; while in soldering, the solder often ex- 
pands and contracts more, or less, than the metals 
which they unite ; and this uneven contraction and 
expansion of the metal and solder, often tears the joint 
apart ; and another objection to soldering is, that the 
solders oxidize either more or less freely than the met- 



166 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

als, and weaken the joints, as is the case if lead ves- 
sels, or chambers, for sulphuric acid, are soldered with 
tin — the tin being so much more freely dissolved by the 
acid, than the lead, soon weakens or opens the joints. 

Fine work, in pewter, is generally burned together at 
the corners, or any sharp angles of the work, where it 
cannot be soldered from the inside ; this is done that 
there may be no difference of color in the external sur- 
face of the work. In this operation a piece or strip of the 
same pewter is laid on the parts to be united, and the 
whole is melted together with a large soldering iron, or 
copper-bit, heated almost to redness ; the superfluous 
metal is then dressed off and leaves the metals thor- 
oughly united, without any visible joint. In burning 
together pewter, or any of the very fusible metals, 
great care is required to avoid melting and spoiling the 
work. 

Castings of brass are often united by burning togeth- 
er. In this operation, the ends of the two pieces to be 
united are filed, or scraped, so as to remove the outside 
surface, or scale ; they are then embedded in a sand- 
mold, in their proper position, and a shallow, or open 
space is left around the joint, or ends of the castings ; 
thirty or forty pounds of melted brass is then poured 
on to the joint, and the surplus metal allowed to escape 
through a flow-gate. In this way, two castings may be 
united so that they are as soldered as if they had been 
cast in one piece. This process is resorted to by all 
* brass founders, in making large and light castings, such 
as wheels, large circular rims, etc. ; when too large to be 
run in one piece, they are usually cast in segments and 
united by burning together. 

Cast-iron is often united by burning together, or more 
properly, burning on, for in this case one of the metals 
added, or united, is in the fluid state. When about to 
burn on to a piece of casting, the part to be united to 
is scraped, or filed, perfectly clean, and is then em- 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 167 

bedded in sand, and a mold of the desired shape formed 
around the casting ; the metal is then poured into the 
mold and allowed to escape through a flow-gate until 
the surface of the casting is melted, and the metals 
unite, the same as in burning together of brass cast- 
ings. In this way, small pieces that have broken off of 
large castings are burnt on, and cylinders that have had 
part of -the flanges torn off", by blowing out of the heads, 
are repaired, by burning on a new flange, or the part 
that has been torn off". In burning on to cast-iron 
there are several very important points that must be 
observed in the operation, in order to make it a success. 
The ingate, as well as the flow-gate, should be made of 
a good size, so that the molten metal may be flowed 
through them rapidly, if necessary. The molten iron 
used should be the hottest that can be procured ; and 
in pouring it into the gate it should be poured in rapidly, 
at flrst, and the metal allowed to run out freely at the 
flow-gate, so as to prevent the molten metal being 
chilled upon the surface of the casting. After the 
casting has been heated, in this way, the metal should 
be poured and flown through the gates slowly, so as to 
give the solid metal a chance to melt and unite with the 
fluid, metal. After the surface of the metal has been 
melted, the pouring should be urged, so as to unite the 
metals more thoroughly ; the operation should be con- 
tinued for some time, so that the casting may be more 
thoroughly heated, and not be so liable to crack from 
uneven expansion and shrinkage. 

The process of burning together, or mending, is often 
resorted to by stove-plate molders, for stopping small 
holes in the plates; this is done by laying the plate 
on the sand, with the sand firmly tucked under the 
part to be mended; a little sand is also put on top 
of the plate, around the part to be mended, so as to pre- 
vent the iron spreading over the plate ; the molten iron 
is poured on the part to be mended, until the edges are 



108 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

fused, and the surplus metal is then scraped off* with 
the trowel, or a clamp-iron, while in the molten state. 



HARD-SOLDERING-. 

Hard-soldering is the art of soldering or uniting two 
metals or two pieces of the same metal together by 
means of a solder that is almost as hard and infusible 
as the metal to be united. In some cases, the metals 
to be united are heated to a high heat, and their sur- 
face united without solder, by means of fluxing the 
surface of the metals. This process is then termed 
brazing, and some of the hard-soldering processes is also 
often termed brazing ; both brazing and hard-soldering 
is usually done in the open fire, on the brazier's hearth. 

When soldering work of copper, iron, brass, etc., the 
solder usually used is a fusible brass, and the work to 
be soldered is prepared by filing or scraping perfectly 
clean the edges or parts to be united. The joints are 
then put in proper position and bound securely together 
with binding wire or clamps ; the granulated solder 
and powdered borax are mixed in a cup with a very 
little water, and spread along the joint to be united 
with a strip of sheet metal or a small spoon. The work 
is then placed upon a clear fire and heated gradually, 
to evaporate the water used in uniting the solder and 
borax, and also to drive off the water contained in the 
crystallized borax, which causes the borax to boil up 
with an appearance of froth. If the work is heated 
hastily, the boiling of the borax may displace the sol- 
der, and for this reason it is better to boil or roast the 
borax before mixing with the solder. When the borax 
has ceased to boil, the heat is then increased, and when 
the metal becomes a faint red, the borax fuses quietly 
like glass, and shortly after, as the heat of the metal is 
increased to a bright red, the solder also fuses, which is 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 169 

indicated by a small blue flame from the burning of the 
zinc. Just at this time, the work should be jarred 
slightly by being tapped lightly with the poker or 
hammer, to put the solder in vibration and cause it to 
run into the joint. For some work it is not necessary to 
tap it with the poker, for the solder is absorbed into the 
joint and nearly disappears without tapping. 

In order to do good work, it is necessary to apply the 
heat as uniformly as possibly, so as to have the solder 
melt uniformly. This is done by moving the work 
about in the fire. As soon as the^work has been prop- 
erly heated, and the solder has flushed, the work should 
be removed from the fire, and after the solder has set 
it may be cooled in cold water without injury. Tubes 
to be soldered are generally secured by binding wire 
twisted together around the tube with the pliers. All 
tubes that are soldered upon the open fire are soldered 
from within, for if they were soldered from the outside, 
the heat would have to be transmitted across the tube 
with greater risk of melting the lower part of the tube, 
the air in the tube being a bad conductor of heat, and 
it is necessary that both ends of the tube should be 
open so as to watch for the melting of the solder. In 
soldering long tubes, the work rests upon the flat plate 
of the brazier's hearth, and portions equal to the length 
of the fire are soldered in succession. 

The common tubes or gas-pipe are soldered or welded 
from the outside. This is done by heating the tube in 
a long air furnace, completely surrounded by hot air, 
by which means the tube is heated more uniformly than 
in the open fire. After the tubes have been heated to 
the wielding heat, they are then taken out of the fur- 
nace and drawn through clamps or tongs to unite the 
edges, and are then run through grooved rollers two or 
three times, and the process is complete. The solder- 
ing or welding of iron tubes requires much less precau- 
tion in point of the heat than some of the other metals 



170 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

or alloys, for there is little or no risk of fusing it. In 
soldering light iron work, such as locks, hinges, etc., 
the work is usually covered with a thin coating of loam 
to prevent the iron from being scaled off by the heat. 

Sheet iron may be soldered at a cherry red heat, by 
nsing iron tilings and pulverized borax as a solder and 
flux. The solder and flux are laid between the irons 
to be soldered, and the whole is bound together with 
binding wire and heated to a red heat and taken from 
the lire and laid upon the anvil, and the two irons are 
united by a stroke upon the set hammer. Steel or 
heavy iron may be united in the same way at a very 
low heat. 

For soldering iron, steel and other light-colored met- 
als, and also brass work that requires to be very neatly 
done, the silver solder is generally used on account of 
its superior fusibility and combining so w^ell with most 
all metals, without gnawing or eating away the sharp 
edges of the joints. Silver solder is used a great deal 
in the arts, and from the sparing or cateful way in 
which it is used, most work requires but little or no 
iinish after soldering ; so that the silver solder, although 
expensive, is in reality the cheapest solder in the long 
run. For silver-soldering, the solder is rolled into thin 
sheets, and then cut into narrow strips with the shears. 
The joints or edges to be united are first coated with 
pulverized borax which has been previously heated or 
boiled to drive off the water of crystallization. The 
small strips of solder are then placed with forceps upon 
the edges or joints to be luiited, and the work is then 
heated upon the brazier's hearth. The process of silver- 
soldering upon the larger scale is essentially the same 
as the operation of brazing. 

For hard-soldering small work, such as drawing in- 
struments, jewelry, buttons, etc., the blow-pipe is almost 
exclusively used, and the solder used is of the finest or 
best quality, such as gold or silver solder, which is 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 171 

always drawn into thin sheets or very fine wire, and it 
is sometimes pulverized or granulated by filing ; but if 
solder is pulverized very fine, a greater degree of heat 
is required to fuse it, for a greater degree of heat is 
always required to fuse a minute particle of metal than 
is required to fuse a large piece. 

In soldering jewelry, the jeweler usually applies the 
borax, or other flux, in solution, with a very small 
camel's-hair brush. The solder is rolled into thin sheets 
and then clipped into minute particles of any desired 
shape or size, which is so delicately applied to the work 
that it is not necessary to file or scrape off any portion 
of it, none being in excess. The borax or other flux 
used in the operation is removed by rubbing the work 
with a rag that has been moistened with water or di- 
luted acids. 



SOFT-SOLDERING. 

Soft-soldering is the art of soldering or uniting two 
of the fusible metals, or two pieces of the same metal. 
The solder used is a more soft and fusible alloy than 
the metals united, and is termed soft-solder; and as 
it is very fusible, the mode of applying the heat is con- 
sequently very much different from that employed iu 
hard-soldering. 

The soft-solders are prepared in different forms to 
suit the different classes of work for which they are in- 
tended. Thus, for tin soldering it is cast into bars of 
ten or twelve inches long by one inch wide, and by 
some it is cast into cakes ten or twelve inches long by 
three or four inches wide. 

The plumber's polder is generally cast into small in- 
gots or cakes, two or more inches square, according to 
the work for which they are intended, and size of pot 
they are to be melted in. Some of the very fusible 



172 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

solders that are intended for very light work are trailed 
from the ladle upon an iron plate, so as to draw the 
solder into thin or large bars, so that the size of the 
solder may always be of a size to suit the "work that it 
is used upon. In soft-soldering it is very essential that 
the parts to be united should be perfectly clean and free 
from any metallic oxides, and for this reason the parts 
to be united are generally wet with a little chloride of 
zinc before applying the solder ; and when the metal is 
old or very dirty, it must be scraped on the edges 
intended to be united before applying the solder. 

When soldering lead pipe, sheet lead, etc., the plumber 
first smears a mixture of size and lampblack around 
the intended joint, to prevent the melted solder adher- 
ing to the metal at a point where it is not wanted. 
The parts to be united are then scraped quite clean with 
the shave-hook, and the clean metal is then rubbed over 
with tallo\v. The wipe joints are usually made with- 
out using the soldering-iron. The solder is heated in 
the plumber's pot rather beyond its melting point and 
poured plentifully upon the joint to heat it. The solder 
is then molded into the proper shape and smoothed 
with the cloth or several folds of thick bed-ticking, 
which is well greased to prevent burning, and the sur- 
plus solder is removed with the cloth. 

In forming the striped joint the soldering iron and 
cloth are both used at the commencement in molding 
the solder and heating the joint. In forming this joint 
less solder is poured on than when forming the wiped 
joint, and a smaller quantity remains upon the work. 
The striped joints are not so neat in appearance as the 
wiped joint, but they are claimed by many to be sounder 
from the solder having been left undisturbed when in 
the act of cooling. But in the wiped joint the body of 
the solder is heavier, and the shrinkage of it around 
the pipe is sufficient to unite the pipe even if the solder 
does not thoroughly unite with the pipe. In forming 



METALS AND ALLOYS, 173 

joints on lead pipe the cloth is always used to support 
the fluid solder when poured on the pipe. Light lead 
work, that requires more neatness than the ordinary 
plumbing, is usually soldered with the ordinary tinner's 
soldering-iron. 

The tinner's soldering-iron, as it is commonly called, 
is made of a square piece of copper, weighing from 
three or four ounces to three or four pounds, according 
to the size of work it is intended for. This piece of 
copper is drawn down to a long, square point, or to flat 
wedge-shape, and riveted into an iron shank, and the 
shank fitted with a wooden handle. The copper-bit, 
or soldering-iron, is then heated in the tinner's fire-pot 
with charcoal to a dull red-heat, and is then screwed 
in the vise and hastily filed to a clean metallic surface. 
It is next rubbed upon a piece of sal-ammoniac, or on 
some powdered resin, and then upon a few drops of sol- 
der in the bottom of the soldering-pan. In this way 
the soldering-iron is thoroughly coated with tin, and is 
then ready for use. 

In soldering tin-plate work, the edges are slightly 
lapped over each other, and the joint or seam is strewed 
with powdered resin, which is usually contained in a 
small box set in the soldering-pan. The soldering- 
iron, which has been heated in the fire-pot, is then 
drawn over the cake of solder, and a few drops are 
melted and adhere to the soldering-iron, and is dis- 
tributed by it along the joint or seam. In large work 
the seams are first tacked together, or united by drops of 
solder so as to hold the seams in proper position while 
being soldered ; but this is seldom done in small work, 
which can easily be held together with the hands. Two 
soldering-tools are generally used, so that while one is 
being used for soldering, the other one is being re- 
heated in the fire-pot, and thus avoiding the delay of 
waiting for the tool to heat. The temperature of the 
tool is very important, for if it is not hot enough to 



174 METALS AND ALLOTS. 

melt the solder, it must be returned to the fire ; and if 
it gets too hot the tinning will be burnt off and the sol- 
der will not hang to it, and the tool must be re-tinned 
before it can be used. In soldering tin-ware, the tool is- 
usually passed only once over the work, being guided 
by contact with the fold or ledge of the seam ; but when 
the operator is not an expert, he usually runs the tool 
backward and forward over the work two or three 
times. This makes slow work. ' 

Sheet-copper, in common work, is soldered with the 
soldering-iron in the same manner as sheet-tin, but the 
finer or more important work is brazed or hard-soldered. 
In soft-soldering copper, as well as sheet-iron, the 
flux generally used is powdered sal-ammoniac, or a so- 
lution of sal-ammoniac and water. A piece of cane, 
the end of which is split into filaments to make a 
stubby brush, is used for applying the solution to the 
work, and powdered resin is subsequently applied. 
Some workmen mix the powdered sal-ammoniac and 
resin together before applying it to the work. This, 
they claim, is better than applying them separate, but 
so long as the metals are well defended from oxidation, 
either of the modes is equally as good, for the general 
principle is the same in both. Zinc is the niost difficult 
metal to solder, and the joints or seams are seldom so 
neatly formed as in tin or copper. Zinc will remove 
the coating of tin from the soldering-tool in a very short 
time. This arises from the superior affinity of copper 
for zinc than for tin, and the surface of the tool is freed 
from tin and is coated with zinc. Sal-ammoniac is 
sometimes used for a flux in soldering zinc, but the most 
common flux used for zinc is muriate of zinc, which is 
made by dissolving fragments of zinc in muriatic acid 
diluted with about an equal amount of water. This 
solution is pat in a wide-mouthed bottle, and small 
strips of zinc dropped into it until they cease to be dis- 
solved. The solution is then ready for use, and is. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 175 

termed muriate of zinc. This solution is likewise used 
for almost all the other metals, as it can be used with- 
out such strict necessity for clean surfaces as when some 
of the other fluxes are used. 

In soft-soldering, the soldering-iron is only used for 
thin sheet metals, because, in order to unite two met- 
als, by soldering, the temperature of the metals must 
be raised to the melting point of the solder ; and a 
heavy body of metal cannot be sufficiently heated with 
the soldering-iron, without heating it to too great a 
heat, which is apt to either burn off the coating of tin, 
or to cause it to be absorbed by the copper, as in super- 
ficial alloying, and the solder will not adhere to the 
tool, and cannot be spread along the joint by it ; and in 
soft-soldering heavy work, the work is first filed, or 
scraped, perfectly clean, at the points to be soldered, 
and is dipped into a bath of melted solder, which is 
covered with a little melted sal-ammoniac, to prevent 
oxidation, and also to act as a flux for uniting the met- 
als. In dipping the work into the bath, it first comes 
in contact with the flux, and is coated by it before it is 
subjected to the heat ; and when dipped into the solder 
the tin readily adheres to it ; and after heavy pieces of 
metal have been tinned, in this way, or by the process. 
of dry-tinning, with mercury, they may be soldered 
with the soldering-iron. 

When tinning thin pieces of brass, or copper alloys, 
for soldering, it is usually done by rubbing a few drops 
of solder over the part to be tinned, with the soldering- 
iron ; and if tinned by dipping into a bath, it must be 
quickly dipped, or there is a risk of the thin sheets being 
melted by the solder. 

When tinning iron, or steel, the work must be allowed 
to remain in the bath, for some time, so as to be thor- 
oughly heated by the bath, or the tin will not be thor- 
oughly united to the iron or steel, and may peal off 
when cold. Large pieces of iron,. or steel, that are in- 



176 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

convenient to dip into a bath, are tinned by heating in 
the open fire, and rubbing the solder on with the solder- 
ing-iron, using either sal-ammoniac, or resin, as a flux. 
When tinning, in this way, the lowest heat that will 
fuse the solder should always be used. 



TABLE OF METALS 

The following table of the metals has been inserted 
at this point so as to be handy to refer to in forming 
alloys, and avoid turning to the respective metals to 
ascertain their specific gravity and fusing point ; two 
very important items that should always be taken into 
consideration when forming alloys ; for if we unite a 
heavy metal and a light one, the heavy metal will settle 
to the bottom of the ladle or casting, if the metal is 
not well stired, and the casting cooled quickly. If we 
unite two metals, one of high fusion and the other of 
low fusion, the metal of high fusion should always be 
melted first, and the metal of low fusion added while 
it is in the molten state, so as to avoid wasting the more 
fusible metal : 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 



177 



Name. 



Atomic Specific 
Weight Gravit}'. 



Specific 
Heat. 



Color, 



Fusing 
Point. 



Aluminum 

Antimony 

Arsenic 

Barium 

Bismuth 

Boron 

Bromine 

Cadmium 

CjBsiuni 

Calcium 

Carbon , 

Cerium 

Chlorine ».... 

Chromium 

Cobalt 

Copper 

DiAymium 

Erbium 

Fluorine 

Glucinum 

Gold ( Aurum) — 

Hydrogen 

Indium... 

Iodine 

Iridium 

Iron 

Lanthanum 

Lead (Plumbum) 

Lithium , 

Magnesium 

Manganese 

Mercury 

Molybdenum 

Nickel 

Niobium 

Nitrogen , 

Osmium 

Oxygen 

.Palladium 

Phosphorus 

Platinum 

Potassium 

Rhodium 

Ku])i(iium 

Rutlienium 

Seleniiim 

Silicon 

Silver 

Sodium 

Strontium 

Sulphur 

Tantalum 

Tellurium 

Thallium 

Thorium 

Tin 

Titanium 

Tungsten (Wol- 

framium) 

Uranium 

Vanadium 

Yttrium 

Zinc 

Zirconium 



27.. 5 
122 

75 
137 
210 

11 

80 
112 
133 

40 

12 

92 

35.5 

52.5 

59 

63.5 

96 
112 

19 
9.5 
197 
1 

76 
127 
197 

56 

92 

207 

7 

24 

55 
200 

96 

59 

94 

14 
199 

16 
106 

31 
197 

39 
104 

85 
104 

79.5 

28 
108 

23 

87.5 

32 

182 

129 

204 

238 

11 

50 

184 

120 
51 
62 
65 

89 



2.67 
0.71 
5.95 
1.85 
9.799 
2.680 
3.187 
8.604 
unknown 
1.578 
2.35 

2 .43.^)" 
6.810 
8.95 
8.90 



1.31 

2.10 

19.34 

.069$ 

7.20 

4.94 

21.80 

7.80 

0.59 
1.70 
8.00 
13.596 
8.64 
8.90 

"■;97"' 

21.400 

1.1056 
11—12 

1.83 
21.53 
865 
11.00 

1.52 
11—12 

4.80 

2.49 
10. bO 
.972 

2.54 

2.00 
10.78 

6 65 
11.86 

"7.3"" 
5.3 

17.50 

18.40 
3.64 

"i'.ih" 

4.15 



.2143 

.05077 

.08140 

".03084 
.2500 
.1060 
.05669 



.02411 

.isii' 

.i0696 
.09515 



.03244 
3.4046 

'65412 
.03269 
.11379 

.0314" 
.9408 
.2499 
.1217 
.03332 

! 16863 

!2446' 
.03063 
.2182 
.05927 

.1887 
.03243 
.16956 
.05803 



.0837 



.05701 
.2934 

'.im 

1 04737 
.03355 

.05623 
.03342 



.9555 



white ! 

bluish-white 

steel-gray 

yellow 

reddish-white 

brown 
brownish-red 
bluish-white 

liglit yellow 
black 

green 

gray 

steel-gray 

red 

yellow 
colorless 

white 
bluish-black 

Avhite 
gray-white 

bluieti-white 
white 
white 
gray-white 
white 
gray 
Avhite 

colorless 

bluish-white 

colorless 

white 

colorless 

white 

bluish- white 

Avhite 

brown 
brown 

white 

white 

pale-yellow 

yellow 

reddish-white 
white 

white 

gi-ay 

steel-gray 

gray 



bluish-white 
black 



1292 F. 
812° F. 
774'^ F. 

'Ih'^'F.' 
420* F. 



infus. ' 
4200- 

"4666"^"'" 
2000* F. 
1994° F. 



2015° F.(?) 

'349=" F." 

225^ F. 

OH 

1900 to 2900 

620° v." 
324<=' F. 
446^ F. 
4096*^ 
—39° F. 
4400° 
2732° 



infus. 

'4666° V?')' 

110° 
4591° F.(?) 

1.36° 

4200*» 

101° 

423° 

'i87.3°F'.' 
195° 

"228° 

'716* 

554° 

'442°'f.'" 

4000° 

4000° 
4300° 



773° F. 



Note.— All the names printed in Roman letters indicate metals, and 
those in italics, non-metals. 

12 



178 METALS AND ALLOYS. 



GOLD. 

Gold is a yellow metal. Its fusing point is 2015" 
Fahrenheit's scale, and when in fusion appears of a 
brilliant greenish color. Pure gold is nearly as soft as 
lead ; it is extremely malleable and ductile. It does 
not oxidize at any temperature, and on account of its 
indestructibility it was anciently called the king of the 
metals. 

Gold is found sometimes in masses called nuggets, 
but generally in scattered grains or scales. As the 
rock in which it occurs disintegrates by the action of 
the elements and forms soil, the gold is gradually 
washed into the valleys below and thence into the 
streams and rivers, where, owing to its specific gravity, 
it settles and collects in the mud and gravel of the beds. 
As the metal is thus found native, the process of prep- 
aration ia purely mechanical, and consists simply in 
washing out the dirt and gravel in wash-pans, rockers, 
sluices, etc., at the bottom of which the gold accumu- 
lates. In the quartz-mills the rock is thrown into 
troughs of water, where, by heavy stamps, the ore is 
crushed to powder. It is then washed with water, and 
the gold obtained. 

At the present time the State of California stands 
pre-eminent in the production of gold. The gold in 
this State is found native, in small grains, in spangles, 
and in crystals so small as to be almost invisible to the 
naked eye, and also in nuggets of ten and fifteen 
pounds weight. These grains of gold are often found 
in small particles of rock that have been worn oft' by the 
action of the elements. They are found imbedded in 
masses of quartz, and they are sometimes found me- 
chanically enclosed in quartz-rock. They are found in 
the gravel of hills from the surface to the bed-rock, 
sometimes a depth of three to five hundred feet ; in the 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 179 

alluvial soil of the plains, and even in vegetable loam 
among the roots of grass. But in most cases the grains 
are pure gold alloyed with a little silver. This alloy 
of silver diminishes the value of the California £;-old 
about fifteen or twenty per cent. The gold of Califor- 
nia was formerly exclusively procured from the alluvial 
sand and gravel on the banks of the rivers, and in the 
valleys traversed by mountain streams ; but of late 
years machinery has been invented and introduced for 
crushing and pulverizing the quartz-rock, and from this 
rock our principal supply of gold is obtained at the 
present time, although large quantities are still ob- 
tained from the alluvial sand and gravel. The imple- 
ment used to procure the gold from the alluvial sand or 
gravel is most simple, and consists simply of an iron or 
tin wash-pan. When this pan is filled with sand and 
gravel, it is immersed in water and shaken ; the gold 
sinks to the bottom, and the sand, clay and gravel flow 
off with the water or are taken out by hand. There is 
no doubt that a large quantity of gold is lost in this 
way of washing, for gravel and sand have been washed 
the second time and almost as much gold obtained as at 
the first washing. Where the washing of either the 
alluvial soil or crushed quartz is carried on, on a large 
scale, it is done in sluices. These are gently-inclined 
troughs, sometimes extending for miles. Across the 
bottom of the troughs are fastened low wooden bars 
called rifles, above which quicksilver is placed. The 
dirt is shoveled into these sluices, and washed through 
them by powerful streams of water which are con- 
stantly running ; the water floats ofl" the dirt, while the 
mercury catches the gold. The greater part of the 
mercury is separated from the amalgam by pressure in 
canvas or buckskin bags, the liquid mercury escaping 
through the pores, while the amalgam is left quite dry, 
The amalgam is then retorted and the balance of the 
mercury removed by evaporation. 



180 3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 

Large quantities of gold are found in all the Western 
territories as well as in California. The deposits are 
about the same as those of California, and they are 
worked and the gold obtained in the same way as in 
California. 

There are also gold-bearing localities in the Sates of 
Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia, New Hamp- 
shire and several other States ; but these regions are 
not so productive as those of the Far West, and they 
have generally been abandoned since the California 
gold excitement of 1849. 

There were formerly alluvial gold diggings in the 
Southern States which yielded as well as the best Cali- 
fornia diggings. Such diggings furnished, some years 
ago, large quantities of gold, but the abundant yield 
did not last long. The rich deposits were soon ex- 
hausted, and the poorer localities did not pay for work- 
ing. The gold-bearing rock is chiefly a talcose slate, 
which is a slate resembling soap-stone, but which does 
not feel so greasy. This slate is red and ferruginous at 
the surface. At a greater depth it is filled with small 
crystals of iron pyrites, which are decomposed near the 
surface, and appear as peroxide of iron, which colors 
the slate brown, and in a few instances, yellow. This 
slate is of various grades of hardness, which is caused 
by the influence of more or less heat when it was formed 
in the North Carolina gold-diggings. It is generally 
very hard. Native gold is also found imbedded in 
quartz-rock, in which it appears in crystals, plates, 
grains, and also in perfectly developed veins, but these 
veins only shoot through between the crystals of the 
quartz-rock, and are not continuous. Quartz of this 
description is found in Virginia, North Carolina, and 
Georgia, but the best gold-producing quartz is found in 
California and the Western Territories. This quartz 
has never been found in a regular continuous vein, but 
is only found in small lodges, which makes it difficult 



3IETALS AND ALLOYS. 181 

and expensive to work. Gold never appears in solid 
veins. It is always disseminated through the mass of 
the rock, in some places more dense than in others. 
There are localities in the gold regions of the West where 
every piece of rock, every handful of soil, contains more 
or less of this precious metal ; but it is often in such 
fine grains as to be not only invisible to the naked eye, 
but undiscernible even with the assistance of a power- 
ful glass. This is the case even when the ores are 
worth four or five dollars per bushel. Yet, by natural 
or artificial decomposition of these ores, the gold be- 
comes visible, and sometimes appear to be in large 
grains. Somes veins of ore contain coarse gold in grains 
as large as the head of a pin, and even larger. These 
are generally found in the quartz-veins, in which the 
pyrites are concentrated into large masses. In the 
fresh pyrites the gold is invisible even if, after separa- 
tion, it appears to be coarse. 

The talcose gold-bearing slate is a metamorphic rock. 
It runs in a regular belt parallel with the Alleghany 
mountain chain. This gold-bearing belt is thirty or 
forty miles in width, and can be traced in a southerly 
direction through the States of New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, 
Georgia and Alabama. In the latter State it seems to 
sink beneath the Mississippi river, and it probably rises 
again to the surface near the Rocky Mountains. Within 
this belt the various veins of gold-bearing slates are 
distributed. Those parts of the veins which are richest 
in gold are characterized by small veins of quartz run- 
ning parallel with the slate. Where this quartz is 
wanting, not much gold is to be found. The talcose 
gold-bearing slate of California is particularly distin- 
guished in this respect, and it is said that they are the 
richest gold-bearing ores in the world. The direction 
of the talcose veins is parallel to the general course of 
the rocky strata or formation that is north-east to south- 



182 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

east. These veins are often twenty feet thick and up- 
ward. They are pyriteous, and contain iron, copper, 
and sulphurets of lead, which are found sometimes to 
be rich in gohi. It is the ^'"eneral impression, when 
gohi is found in alhivial soil, or in the bottom of a 
stream, that a vein of gold ore must exist somewhere 
about that place where the gold is found ; but this im- 
pression, however plausible, is false ; for we find gold- 
washings in the alluvial deposits of granite mountains. 
8till there are no gold-bearing veins found in this rock. 
Yet gold is never carried far from its original resting- 
place, and if a vein of gold ore cannot be found near 
the alluvial washings, there is no prospect of finding it 
either above or below where the stream ceases to carry it. 
Gold is seldom found in veins, except in the very rich 
quartz, but is mostly found distributed through masses 
of rock ; this rock is dissolved by the action of the ele- 
ments, and the gold is washed into the streams, or de- 
posited in the alluvial soil. Where the streams contain 
more gold, after heavy rains and freshets, it is an 
indication that there is no gold-vein, from whence the 
gold is produced ; but the gold comes from the rocks 
which have been dissolved by the action of the ele- 
ments, and washed into the streams by the heavy rains. 
Where the gold is found in a stratum, in an alluvial 
deposit, it is an indication of there being no vein, for 
a severe winter, or a heavy freshet, will cause the form- 
ation of this stratum, while a vein would furnish a reg- 
ular supply, and not form a stratum. The quantity of 
gold obtained from these stratums, or washings, may be 
very promising, at first, but they are seldom continu- 
ous ; yet, if the washings, in the alluvial deposits are 
not carried on too extensively, a regular yearly supply 
may be obtained, but the crop of gold will depend 
upon the dissolving of the rocks, and the quantity of 
rain which falls, to wash the fine particles of gold down 
into the streams, or soil. The yield of gold from the 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 183 

alluvial deposits, is, sometimes, very valuable; a for- 
tune may sometimes be obtained from a few backetsful 
of sand. The first miners who arrived at Pikes Peak, 
and other rich deposits of gold, made a fortune in a 
short time, and it will be the same at the Black Hills ; 
but these rich deposits are only found in spots, and 
when these spots are exhausted, there is no vein to fall 
back upon, and it requires a number of years, perhaps 
ages, to accumulate another heavy deposit of the metal. 
In these deposits of gold, lumps have been found worth 
five and six thousand dollars. 

Gold is never found in the secondary strata of rock, 
or in the coal regions ; we may look in vain for it on the 
western slope of the Alleghany mountains ; it cannot be 
found there; it appears to have originated in the primitive 
rocks, and it is most abundantly found iu the rocks of 
igneous origin — the geological formation of California 
is of this character, and is rich in gold ; but the rocks 
of the southern gold-bearing strata is not of igneous 
origin. The gold, in this latter region, is evidently pro- 
duced from the pyrites, which may be a secondary 
enclosure. This theory is supported by the fact that 
the richest gold ores are found near veins of rock that 
are of the igneous strata. All native sulphurets, par- 
ticularly all the sulphurets of iron, or silver, contain 
gold, but all pyrites do not contain sufficient gold to 
pay for its extraction. As sulphur cannot penetrate 
any rock, but from below, we must naturally conclude 
that the heaviest body of the pyriteous ores must lie 
deep in the earth ; this conclusion is supported by prac- 
tice, for all xjyriteous veins are invariably found to im- 
prove in quality and quantity with the depth. 

Gold is also found inclosed in crystallized quartz. 
This gold has, evidently, been washed into the crevices 
of the rocks, and afterwards covered with quartz, in 
solution ; and to this result the heat of a volcanic region 
has, no doubt, greatly contributed. The crevices of the 



184 METALS AND ALLOTS. 

felspathic rock, of North Carolina, are chiefly filled with 
crystalline quartz, which, in many instances, contain 
^old. 

The, work of obtaining gold from its ores, is a work 
that requires great care, to make it profitable ; for, in 
crushing, washing and amalgamating these ores, a 
large portion of the gold may be wasted, w^hich, in 
poor ores, may amount to fifty per cent. Ores which 
yield twenty-five cents worth of gold, by amalgama- 
tion, yield fifty cents by smelting them. The best way 
to obtain all the gold from its ores, by amalgamation, is 
to amalgamate the ores two or three difi'erent times. In 
works for the refining of gold, great care is taken to 
avoid the loss of any particles of the metal ; all the old 
crucibles are ground, and treated with mercury, and 
after as much gold as possible has been obtained, the 
residues are melted with lead, and a little more extract- 
ed ; all the dust off the floor is collected and treated in 
a similar way. 

The floor of uhe alloy-room of the United States Mint, 
at Philadelphia, Pa., is made of pipe set on end with 
the top end open, and all the dust and fine particles of 
gold that is lost goes down the pipe. These pipes are 
removed once a year, and all the dirt is amalgamated 
or smelted, and all the gold obtained. It is said that as 
high as thirty thousand dollars have been taken from 
these pipes in one year. 

Gold is not much used in the arts in its pure state ; it 
is then too soft to be durable. The gold leaf used by 
dentists for stopping decayed teeth is, perhaps, as near 
pure as the metal can be obtained ; it contains about 
one-thousandth part of alloy. Gold is used with other 
metals in forming alloys for coin, jewelry, ornaments, 
etc. Gold is also extensively used for plaiting other 
metals by the electrotype process and for gilding. In 
water gilding, fine gold is amalgamated with mercury, 
and rubbed over the metal intended to be gilded, the 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 185 

mercury attaches itself to the metal, and when evapor- 
ated by heat it leaves the gold behind in the dead or 
frosted state ; it is then brightened with the burnisher. 
Fine gold is also used for soldering chemical vessels 
made of platinum. Gold is more ornamental than use- 
ful. (See Alloys.) 



SILVER. 

Silver is the whitest of the metals, its fusing point is 
1873 of Fahrenheit's scale. It is malleable and ductile ; 
it expands at the moment of solidification, and therefor 
cannot be cast. It has a powerful attraction for sulphur, 
forming silver sulphide, silver spoons, and knobs are 
tarnished by the minute quantities of hydro-sulphuric 
acid present in the air. 

Silver is found through the west in a great variety of 
forms, most commonly, however, combined with sulphur, 
as black sulphide with chlorine, forming horn-silver, 
and with sulphur and arsenic or antimony forming 
ruby-silver. The sulphides and sulphurets of silver is 
the most common of the silver ore. We find it in the 
form of crystals, hairs and needles, or like wire twisted 
into nets, in plates and in shapeless masses. This ore 
is not elastic like metallic silver, yet it is malleable, and 
may easily be cut with a knife ; the clean cut looks like 
metallic lead, but it is soon covered with a film of oxide 
of various colors. These sulphide ores of silver contain 
as high as eighty-five per cent of silver and fifteen per 
cent of sulphur. They are easily smelted, and metallic 
silver is obtained from them with but little trouble. 
The sulphuret of silver, and all the ores of silver, are 
found in rocks of all ages, except in the coal regions. 
The sulphuret of silver is the chief source from which 
we obtain our supply of silver. It is found in abund- 
ance in almost all of Western and Southern gold regions, 



186 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

where it appears in heavy veins, associated with gold, 
copper, lead, antimony, arsenic and other metals. Silver 
is most abundantly found where mineral veins cross or 
meet each other, and in the copper mines of Lake 
Superior silver is often found mixed with the copper, 
but in distinct fibers, not being alloyed with the copper. 
The silver ores of the gold regions contain the sulphurets 
of zinc, some iron pyrites and copper pyrites, and in 
some cases a little tin or arsenic. The silver is gener- 
ally found to be alloyed with these metals as well as 
with gold. The amount of silver in these ores are vari- 
able ; from some ore only ten or fifteen ounces can be 
obtained from a ton of crude ore, and from others as 
high as sixty or seventy ounces may be obtained. An 
ounce of silver from these ores is worth as high as two 
dollars ; the high price paid for it is on account of the 
small amount of gold that is alloyed with it. Some of 
the silver ores of the gold region are very rich in gold, 
and are often worked more for the gold they contain 
than the silver. The silver is obtained from these ores 
principally by the smelting process, .but the refined sil- 
ver is obtained by crushing the ore into a fine powder, 
and then roasting it with common salt, the chlorine of 
the salt unites with the silver forming silver chloride. 
This is next put into a revolving cylinder with water 
mercury and iron scraps, the iron removes the chlorine 
from the silver, when the mercury takes it up, thus 
forming an amalgam of mercury and silver; from this 
amalgam the silver is obtained in the same way as from 
the gold amalgams. 

The chloride of silver is found native, and is called 
horn-silver. It is chiefiy found at the outcrop of veins 
along with native silver, but is not so generally found 
as the sulphurets of silver. Chloride of silver is a very 
horny substance, and is so soft as to be cut by the fin- 
ger-nail. The chloride of silver is of different colors, 
but is generally of a gray or greenish color, silver is 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 187 

also found combined with sulphur and antimony, or 
arsenic. In this form it is termed ruby silver. Its 
color embraces all the shades of red, and is rarely found 
of any other color. It is found wherever other silver 
ores are found, and is generally accompanied by or as- 
sociated with antimony or arsenical ores. 

The antimonial silver ore is the richest of silver ores. 
It is found in California and all of our Western Temtories 
in great abundance. It is a crystallized ore of a yel- 
lowish-blue color, hard, and very brittle. It resembles 
arsenical iron, but is easily distinguished from that ore 
by its crystals being longer and not so hard. This ore, 
when jjure, contains as high as eighty per cent, of silver 
and twenty per cent, of antimony. From this ore and 
the sulphuret ores our principal supply of silver is ob- 
tained. They are both found in the Western Territo- 
ries, and are extensively worked, so much so that silver 
has come to be as plentiful as iron in some parts of the 
West ; and in San Francisco, California, silver coin has 
become so plentiful that the business men do not know 
what to do with it, for it is too heavy to be carried or 
handled in large quantities. 

Silver is but little used in its pure state on account of 
its extreme softness ; but it is generally alloyed with 
copper in different proportions and used for coin, jew- 
elry, ornaments, etc. It is also used for plating other 
metals by the electrotype process, w^hich it does in the 
most uniform and perfect manner. The silver added 
is charged for by weight at about three times the price 
of the metal. The German silver is generally used for 
the interior substance, as when the silver is partially 
worn through, the white alloy is not so readily detected 
as iron or copper would be. Diamonds are set in fine 
silver containing from three to twelve grains of copper 
in the ounce. The work is soldered with pure tin. The 
sheet-metal for plated work is prepared by fitting to- 
gether very truly a short, thick bar of copper, and a 



188 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

thinner plate of silver. They are tied together with 
binding- wire, and united by partial fusion without the 
aid of solder. The bar is then rolled out into sheets, 
and the silver always remains perfectly united and of 
the same proportional thickness as at first. Silver can- 
not be used in its pure state for casting, for at a tem- 
perature a little above the melting-point it absorbs 
oxygen, which it gives off as it approaches the point of 
solidification, and when a thin crust of metal has formed 
upon the surface, the silver beneath it appears to boil, 
and the crust is forced up into hollow cones through 
which the molten silver is thrown out with explosive 
violence, and sometimes solidifying into most fantastic, 
tree-like forms. (See Alloys.) 



PLATINUM, PALLADIUM, RHODI- 
UM, IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. 

These five metals are called the platinum metals, be- 
cause they always appear together, or are alloyed. 
These metals are as valuable as gold, and some of them 
are sold at higher prices than gold. When pure, they 
are heavier than gold. All of them are almost infusi- 
ble when pure, but may be fused when slightly im- 
pure, or when alloyed with other metals. 



PLATINUM. 

Platinum is a white metal, and resembles silver in its 
appearance ; it is the most infusible of metals, and is 
unaltered by the joint action of heat and air, and can 
be melted only by the heat of the compound blow-pipe, 
or voltaic battery. It is one of the most ductile of met- 
als, wire being made from it so fine as to be invisible to 
the naked eye. It does not oxidize in the air. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 189 

Platinum is chiefly found in the Ural-mountains, 
where it occurs in a]luvial deposits, usually in small, 
flattened grains. It has been found in the gold dig- 
gings of North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia and Califor- 
nia, but not in such quantities as to be of any import- 
ance. The largest nugget of platinum ever found 
weighed eighteen pounds. Platinum being nearly in- 
fusible, when pure, requires a very different treatment 
from other metals, and in place of fusion it is first dis- 
solved, chemically, and it is then thrown down in the 
state of a precipitate ; next, it is partly agglutinated in 
the crucible into a spongy mass, and is then com- 
pressed, while cold, in a rectangular mold, by means of 
a powerful press, or other means ; two blocks, or pieces, 
are then heated, in a smith's forge, with two tuyeres, 
meeting at an angle, at which spot the platinum is 
placed amidst the charcoal fire ; when heated to the 
welding point, or almost a blue heat, it is then welded 
as iron ; several heats are generally required to make a 
perfect weld. 

Platinum is used for crucibles, in chemical laborato- 
ries ; in Russia, it is used for coin ; it is also used for 
the touch-holes of fowling-pieces, and in various philo- 
sophical apparatus, in which resistance to fusion, or to 
acids, are essential. (See Alloys.) 



PALLADIUM. 

Palladium is a dull- white colored metal ; it is almost 
infusible, when pure ; and it is very soft, malleable and 
ductile. 

Palladium is generally found alloyed with platinum, 
in its native state, and is separated by dissolving in 
acids. Palladium is used for many of the purposes for 
which gold and platinum are applied^in the useful 
arts, and in many of the alloys. With silver, it forms 



190 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

a very tough, malleable alloy, fit for the graduation of 
mathematical instruments ; and for dental-surgery, for 
which purpose it is much used by the French. With 
silver and copper, palladium makes a very springy 
alloy, used for the points of pencil-cases, tooth-picks, or 
any purpose where elasticity, and the property of not 
tarnishing, are required — thus alloyed, it takes a high 
polish. 

Palladium was used in the construction of the scales 
for the United States Mint. 



RHODIUM. 

Rhodium is a white metal; it is almost infusible, 
when pure ; and is extremely hard, when pure. The 
acids do not dissolve it. It is generally found alloyed 
with platinum and palladium. It has long been used 
for the nibs of pens. 



IRIDIUM. 

Iridium is named from Iris, the rainbow, because of 
the beautiful color of its salts. It is a very hard metal, 
and almost infusible, when pure. It is used with osmi- 
um, or rhodium, in forming an alloy for pen-points. 

Iridium is generally found associated with platinum. 



OSMIUM. 

Osmium is a very hard metal, and almost infusible, 
when pure. It is found with platinum, and, like iridi- 
um, is very scarce and valuable. It is scarcely used 
for any other purpose than in alloys for pen-points. 



METALS AND ALLOYS, 191 



MERCURY. 

Mercury is also called quicksilver, because it runs 
about as if it were alive, and was supposed by the 
alchemists to contain silver. It has been known, how- 
ever, from very remote ages. The mines of Spain were 
worked by the ancient Romans. It is liquid at all com- 
mon temperatures, and contracts considerably at the mo- 
ment of congelation. It boils and becomes vapor at 
about 670° of Fahrenheit's scale. 

Mercury is found native in all mercury mines. It 
occurs in small drops attached to the body of the ore, 
to the gangue or dead minerals of the veins, and to the 
rocks. The most important ore of mercury is cinnabar. 
This ore resembles in color oxide of iron, with which it 
is sometimes confounded. Its redness, however, is 
mingled with a yellowish hue like that of minium, by 
which peculiarity it is distinguished. It is also easily 
distinguished from other minerals by its volatile char- 
acter. It evaporates entirely when thrown in a fire, 
leaving no residuum, and emitting a strong smell of 
sulphur. Cinnabar is found in the Western States and 
territories, and is said to occur in heavy masses. Bitu- 
minous sulphuret of mercury is also a mercury-produc- 
ing ore. It is of a more or less gray-brown, earthy 
color and appearance. There are other ores of mercury, 
but they are of little importance. 

Mercury is found native in Mexico in very small 
quantities, where the mines are said to have been dis- 
covered by a slave, who, in climbing a mountain, came 
to a steep ascent. To aid him in mounting this, he 
tried to draw himself up by a bush w^hich grew in a 
crevice above ; the bush, however, giving way, was 
torn up by the roots, and a tiny stream of what seemed 
liquid silver trickled down upon him. 

Mercury is used in the fluid state in the manufacture 



192 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

of thermometers and barometers, and for pressure 
gauges, in silvering mirrors, and for extracting the pre- 
cious metals from their ores. It is sometimes, although 
rarely, employed for rendering alloys more fusible. It 
forms amalgams with gold, silver, copper, palladium, 
tin, lead and zinc. 



COPPER. 

Copper is a reddish metal ; its fusing point is 1994° 
of Fahrenheit's scale. It is ductile and malleable, and 
is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. It 
exhales a peculiar smell v^hen warmed or rubbed; it 
melts at a bright-red or dull white heat. 

Copper is found native in large quantities, in regular 
veins, near Lake Superior, and frequently in masses of 
great size. The heavy masses of copper in these places 
are imbedded in volcanic rock, and small veins ramify 
it in all directions. It occurs in bodies of almost every 
size, from small grains to masses weighing ten tons and 
upwards. This native copper is frequently found to be 
mixed with silver in distinct fibre, the latter not being 
alloyed with the copper. In these mines stone hammers 
have been discovered, the tools of a people older than 
the Indians, who probably occupied this continent and 
worked these mines. In the Western mounds, also, 
copper instruments are found, and it is thought that the 
mound-builders of the Western and Southwestern States 
worked these mines. Native copper is found in almost 
every vein of copper ore. It has been found in those of 
New Jersey, and also in those of Pennsylvania and 
some of the Western territories. Copper ores are, like 
iron ores, very abundant, and there is a great variety 
of them. They are found in almost every State in the 
Union. Copper ores are smelted on the same principle 
as iron ores — by heating with carbon. 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 193 

The ores from which copper is principally smelted are 
the sulphuret ores, the copper pyrites, the red and 
black oxides, the carbonates of copper, and others. 
The sulphuret ores are the ones from which the most 
copper is smelted. There are two kinds of these ores : 
one is called the gray sulphuret of copper, the other, 
copper pyrites. The pyrites generally contain more or 
less iron, and it resembles iron pyrites very much, but 
may be easily distinguished from it by its lively, rain- 
bow colors. The iron pyrites are always found with 
the copper pyrites, and the best ores contain from ten to 
twenty per cent, of iron and forty or fifty per cent, of 
copper, while some of the poorer ores only yield three 
or four per cent, of copper. These pyrites ores are 
found in most all the metamorphic rocks of the United 
States, particularly around the lakes, all along the At- 
lantic coast, and through the Rocky Mountains. The 
copper pyrites are very abundant, but are frequently 
so mixed with other matter as to make the mining and 
smelting of them unprofitable. They are commonly 
associated with iron. In New York, New Jersey, and 
Eastern Pennsylvania, they are mixed with magnetic 
iron, and in Vermont and North Carolina with the 
sparry carbonates of irou, and with iron pyrites every- 
where. The copper pyrites generally accompanies the 
gold-bearing iron pyrites in all cases, and is considered 
a good indication of richness. Copper is also found 
with sparry-iron, galena, and sulphuret of zinc. But 
there is very few instances in which any of these ores 
will pay for working, as they rarely yield more than 
four or five per cent of copper. 

The gray sulphuret of copper is a compact ore. Its 
surface is a dull lead-color, or an iron-gray. It is also 
found of a faint red-color when taken near the surface 
of the ground. It is very easily smelted, and yields a 
large percentage of copper when the ore is pure. This 
13 



194 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

ore is found in heavy veins in the copper regions of 
Lake Superior, and also in New Jersey. 

The red oxide and black oxide ores of copper are not 
very plenty, and are little used for the production of 
metallic copper. 

The carbonate of copper is generally of a blue color, 
but it is also found of all shades, from dark-blue to 
light green. This class of ore is of little value, and is 
more of a curiosity than a useful ore. 

The phosphates and chlorides of copper are both of 
a green color, and form no regular copper ores. 

There are several other copper ores, but those de- 
scribed are the principal ores from which our supply of 
copper is obtained. There is scarcely any of the copper 
ore which does not betray the presence of that metal by 
a green film. 

Copper is extensively used with other metals in form- 
ing alloys of brass, britannia, bronze, German-silver, 
hard-solder, etc. It is also used alone for many pur- 
poses, such as sheathing and bolts for ships, brewing, 
distilling, and culinary vessels, rolls for calico printing, 
paper-making, plates for the use of engravers, etc. (See 
Alloys.) 



ZINC. 



Zinc is a bluish-white metal. With considerable lus- 
tre, and rather hard. It melts at about 773° of Fahren- 
heit's scale. It is ordinarily brittle, but v^hen heated 
to a little above 200°, and between that and 300°, it 
becomes ductile and malleable, and can be rolled out 
into the sheet-zinc, in cortimon use, or be drawn into 
moderately fine wire, which, however, possesses but lit- 
tle tenacity. 

Zinc, when melted, burns in the air with a magnifi- 
cent green light, forming flakes of zinc-oxide, sometimes 
called " Philosopher's Wool." When exposed to the 



METALS AND ALLOTS, 195 

air zinc soon oxidizes, and the thin films of white ox- 
ide, formed over the surface, protects it from further 
change. 

Native zinc, or spelter, as it is called in commerce, is 
never found ; it has so much affinity for other matter, 
particularly oxygen, that it cannot exist very long in 
its pure state. The principal ores of zinc are zinc-blende, 
red zinc ore, and calamine ore. The zinc-blende is a 
sulphuret of zinc, and is composed of sixty or seventy 
per cent of zinc, and the balance sulphur ; its color is 
generally a bright or yellowish-brown, but it is occa- 
sionally found of a black, red, green or yellow color 
This ore is always found crystallized, and in most cases 
the masses of it are mere accumulations of crystals. It 
is transparent, or, at least admits of the passage ol 
light, if in thin scales. This ore is found in heavy 
veins and masses, in the gold regions of the western 
territories and southern states. It sometimes contains 
silver, and also gold, in considerable quantities. It is 
sometimes associated with Galena iron and copper 
pyrites, tin, heavy spar, black manganese and manga- 
nese-spar. This ore is chiefly worked for its gold and 
silver, all the zinc being lost by being either converted 
into cinder, or washed away. The red zinc ore is the 
principal source from which we obtain our supply of 
zinc, or spelter. This ore is extensively deposited in 
New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and is used for the 
manufacture of zinc, or spelter. There is a very large 
zinc works, at Bethlehem, Pa., and several large works 
in New Jersey. The red zinc ore is a compound of 
oxide of zinc, manganese and oxide of iron ; its color 
is a brick-red, with a yellowish-tinge, like cinnabar. 
The calamine ore is a silicate of zinc ; it is a dirty-yel- 
low, or stone color; if pure, it consists of about one- 
half oxide of zinc ; the other half is composed of car- 
bonic-acid, silex, iron, and other admixtures. This ore 
is very plenty, and is found, in heavy beds, in eastern 



196 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

Pennsylvania ; it is found in heavy veins, and may be 
looked for in all the lime-stone rock, from the most 
recent to the oldest formations. 

Zinc is used, in its pure state, for sheet-zinc, and for 
coating sheet-iron, gas pipe, etc., with. To form gal- 
vanized iron — this is made by dipping the iron into a 
bath of molten zinc, and the iron comes out coated with 
zinc. Sheet-zinc is sometimes used for roofing build- 
ings, but it should not be used for foundry roofs, as the 
steam from the sand corrodes it, and will soon eat it full 
of holes. Zinc is also extensively used with other met- 
als, in forming alloys of brass, German-silver, hard 
solder, etc. (See Alloys.) 



TIN. 



Tin is a silvery-white colored metal, with a slight 
tint of yellow. Its fusing-point is 422° of Fahrenheit's 
scale. It is soft, and not very ductile, but is quite mal- 
leable, so that tin-foil, which is obtained by beating 
out the metal, is not more than one-thousandth of an 
inch in thickness. When quickly bent it utters a shrill 
sound called the tin-cry, which is caused by the destruc- 
tion of cohesion and the crystals moving upon each 
other. When a bar of tin is rapidly bent backward 
and forward several times successively, it becomes so 
hot that it cannot be held in the hand. When rubbed, 
it exhales a peculiar odor. Tin does not oxidize rapidly 
at an ordinary temperakire. Its tendency to crystal- 
lize is remarkable. 

Tin, though one of the metals longest known to man, 
is found in but few localities. There are but two ores 
of tin known which are of any practical use. One of 
these is tin-stone, or peroxide of tin. The other is sul- 
phuret of tin, or tin pyrites. No tin is manufactured 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 197 

in the United States at present, although tin-stone is 
found in the New England States, and is said to have 
been discovered in Missouri. This, however, is doubt- 
ful. Tin-stone occurs chiefly in granite in heavy masses 
or lodes mixed with conglomerates of various rocks. It 
is also found in alluvial gravel as the result of the de- 
composition of the above rock, and is then called stream- 
tin. Tin-stone is of a variety of colors, white, gray, 
yellow, red, brown, and black. Its most striking fea- 
ture is its weight. Tin pyrites are not very abundant, 
and cannot be considered an ore of tin. Their presence 
in the silver ores of the Southern gold region is so lim- 
ited as to render the extraction of the metal unprofita- 
ble. This ore is of a gray or yellowish color, heavy, 
crystallized, and of a metallic lustre. 

Tin is extensively used with other metals in forming 
alloys of pewter, bjittania, brass, bell-metal, soft-solder, 
fusible metals, etc. Pure tin is commonly used for 
dyers' kettles. It is also sometimes employed for the 
bearings of locomotives, carriages, and other machinery. 
Common sheet-tin is formed by dipping sheet-iron in a 
bath of melted tin covered with oil, or tvith a mixture 
of oil and common resin. They come out thoroughly 
coated with tin. Tinned iron wire is similarly prepared. 
Cast-iron hollow-ware is tinned by heating the ware to 
redness, and putting molten tin into the pot or kettle 
intended to be tinned, a ad spreading it over the sur- 
face with a piece of cork. Sal-ammoniac or resin may 
be used as a flux. Pins made of brass wire are boiled 
with granulated tin, cream of tartar and water, which 
gives a bright white surface to the pins. Mirrors are 
silvered with an amalgam of tin and mercury. The 
process is as follows : Tinrfoil is first spread evenly 
upon a marble table, and then the mercury is carefully 
poured over it. The two metals combine, forming a 
bright amalgam. A clean, dry plate of glass is then 
carefully pushed forward over the amalgam, so as to 



198 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

caTry the superfluous mercury before it, and also pre- 
vent the air from getting- between the glass and the 
amalgam. Weights are then placed on the glass to 
cause the film to adhere more closely, and in twenty- 
four hours the glass is removed, and in three or four 
weeks is dry enough to be framed. This process of 
making mirrors is very injurious to health, and the 
workmen are short-lived. A paralysis sometimes at- 
tacks them within a few weeks after they enter the 
manufactory, and it is seldom that a man escapes for 
more than a year or two. The effects are similar to 
that of calomel. The men seem to dance instead of 
walk, and they cannot steady their nerves nor direct 
the motion of their hands ; and in some cases they can- 
not digest their food. (See Alloys.) 



LEAD. 



Lead is a bluish- white metal; its fusing point is 
620'' of Fahrenlieit's scale. It is remarkably flexible 
and soft, and will leave a black mark, on paper. It is 
poisonous, though not immediately, as bullets have 
been swallowed and then thrown off without any harm, 
except fright ; its effects seem to accumulate in the sys- 
tem, and finally to manifest themselves in some disease. 
The sugar-of-lead has a sweet, pleasant taste, but is a 
virulent poison ; its antidote is Epsom-salts. 

Lead appears to have been known in the earliest 
ages of the world. The most common ore of lead, is 
galena, or sulphuret of lead ; this ore has the lustre and 
color of polished metallic leg-d. It is always grey, with- 
out a shade of any other color, but its powder, when 
finely rubbed, is black. It is always found in a crys- 
talline form, the crystals being cubes, often composed of 
square plates, and frequently so small as only to be 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 199 

detected by the aid of a glass ; in other instances, the 
cubes, or the plate, which forms the cubes, are more 
than one inch square. Galena is very heavy, and equal 
to metallic iron, in specific gravity ; it is the heaviest 
of all metallic ores. Galena is very extensively distrib- 
uted over the United States, and is found in almost 
every state in the Union ; the most extensive deposits 
are in the western states. It is extensively worked on the 
upper Mississippi and in Missouri. Galena, containing 
silver, is very extensively distributed over the whole gold 
region, but it is not generally in use. The difficulty of 
smelting this ore, profitably, appears to be in the way 
of its more general application. Lead is also obtained 
from the carbonate of lead, an ore of frequent occur- 
rence, but it rarely forms a vein of itself. The phos- 
phate of lead is also an ore from which metallic lead is 
obtained. Lead is reduced from its ores by roasting in 
a reverberatory furnace ; the sulphur burns and leaves 
the metal. 

Lead is used, in its pure state, for pipe, bullets, 
sheet-lead, roofs, vessels for sulphuric acid, etc. ; it is 
also used, with other metals, in forming alloys of pew- 
ter, type metal, soft solder, fusible metals, etc. Ships 
were sheathed with lead and wood, from before the 
Christian era to 1450, after which wood was more com- 
monly employed ; and in 1790 to 1800 copper sheathing 
became general. (See A^.loys.) 



NICKEL. 

Nickel is a white, brilliant metal ; it fuses at 2732° 
of Fahrenheit's scale ; it is ductile and malleable, acts 
upon the magnetic needle, and is itself capable of be- 
coming a magnet. Its magnetism is more feeble than 
that of iron, and vanishes at a heat somewhat below 
redness. It does not oxidize by exposure to air, at 



200 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

common temperatures, but when heated in the air it 
acquires various tints, like steel ; at a red heat it be- 
comes coated by a grey oxide. 

There is very little nickel ore found in the United 
United States, and the only mines that are worked, at 
the present time, in this country, are located in Eastern 
Pennsylvania ; and from these mines the United States 
government receive their supply of this metal, for mak- 
ing the five-cent nickel coin, now in use. This metal 
is scarcely used, in its pure state, but is principally 
used together with copper, zinc, and other metals, in 
forming alloys, and these alloys are rendered the harder 
and whiter the more nickel they contain. The white 
copper of the Chinese, which is the same as our German- 
silver, is composed of three parts nickel, five parts cop- 
per, and two parts zinc ; this alloy sometimes contains 
a little iron, and a small amount of that metal seems to 
improve the alloy. This metal is also extensively used 
for plating other metals, and for this purpose it is rap- 
idly taking the place of silver. When plated on other 
metals, it has a silvery- whiteness, and receives a high 
polish, which lasts for years, and its hardness is almost 
equal to that of steel, which eminently fits it for the 
plating of mathematical and other delicate instruments. 
(See Alloys.) 



ANTIMONY. 

Antimony is of a silvery-white color, with beautiful 
laminated star-like crystalline structure, and is very 
brittle. Its fusing point is about 800° of Fahrenheit's 
scale, or at a dull red heat, and it is volatile at a white 
heat. Antimony is commonly found in the form of a 
sulphuret, which is very volatile, easily fused, and re- 
quires great caution in roasting. The sulphur cannot 
be entirely separated by roasting, and this causes the 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 201 

roasted matter to have a dark-gray color. A mixture 
of sulphuret and protoxide, the more perfectly the desul- 
phuration of the ore is performed, the more will the 
color approach to a faint yellow. Impure lead ore has 
this characteristic in common with antimony, but be- 
fore roasting, it is not difficult to decide between anti- 
mony and lead. 

Antimony was discovered by Basile Valentine, a 
monk of Germany, in the fifteenth century. It is said 
that to test its properties, he first fed it to the swine 
kept at the convent, and found that they thrived upon 
it. He then tried it upon his fellow-monks, but per- 
ceiving that they* died in consequence, he forthwith 
named the new^ metal, in honor of this fact, anti-moine 
{anti-monk), whence our term antimony is derived. 

Antimony expands on cooling. It is scarcely ever 
used alone, but is generally used with lead, tin and 
other metals in forming alloys. Antimony and tin 
mixed in equal proportions form a moderately hard, 
brittle and very brilliant alloy, capable of receiving an 
exquisite polish and not easily tarnished by exposure to 
the air. It has been manufactured into speculums for 
telescopes. (See Alloys.) 



BISMUTH. 

Bismuth is a brittle, rjddish-white metal. It fuses 
at 507^ of Fahrenheit's scale ; always crystallizes on 
cooling ; is volatile at a high heat ; transmits heat more 
slowly than most other metals, perhaps in consequence 
of its texture. This metal is seldom used alone for any 
useful purpose, but is employed for imparting fusibility 
to alloys of other metals. An alloy of three parts lead, 
two parts tin and live parts bismuth may be melted in 
boiling water or at a heat of 199° Fahrenheit, yet when 
these metals are melted separately, tin requires a heat 
of 442°, lead 620°, and bismuth 507°. (See Alloys.) 



202 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

ARSENIC. 

Arsenic is a brittle, steel-gray metal. It very much 
resembles phosphorus in its general properties, and is 
therefore classified with it. If heated in the open air 
it gives off the odor of garlic, which is a test of arsenic. 
Arsenic is found in combination with iron ores and with 
cobalt. Arsenic anhydride, or white arsenic, that is 
sold in our drug stores, is made in Silesia by roasting 
arsenical iron ores at the bottom of a tower, above which 
are a series of rooms through which the vapors ascend 
and pass out at a chimney in the top, the arsenic burns 
forming arsenic oxide, which collects as a white powder 
on the walls and floors of the chambers above. Its 
removal is a work of great danger. The workmen are 
entirely enveloped in a leathern dress, and mask with 
glass eyes. They breathe through a moistened sponge, 
thus filtering the air of the fine particles of arsenic float- 
ing through it ; yet in spite of all these precautions the 
workmen seldom live beyond forty years. 

Arsenic is used in forming alloys with other metals. 
It is very volatile, and care must be taken to not inhale 
the gases from it, for they are a deadly poison, even 
worse than the arsenic itself. It is also used as a drug 
and for different chemical purposes. (See Alloys.) 



MANGANESE. 

Manganese is a hard, brittle metal resembling cast- 
iron in its color and appearance. It requires the high- 
est heat of the smith's forge to fuse it. It is very brittle 
and crystalline, and takes a beautiful polish. 

Manganese is generally found in combination with 
iron ; in fact there is scarcely an iron ore that does not 
contain more or less of this metal. There are only two 
principal ores of manganese that are of practical value ; 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 203 

they are the black manganese and the crystalline ores. 
There are other ores of manganese, but they are merely 
curiosities. The manganese ores are found in all the 
States along the Atlantic coast, near the lakes, and west 
of the Mississippi river. Vermont, Pennsylvania, Vir- 
ginia and other States also furnish manganese. 

Manganese is used in alloying iron to form speigel- 
eisen iron. It is also used in the manufacture of steel. 
The black oxide is used with potassium chlorate for 
making oxygen gas for use in the chemical laboratory. 
It is also used in glass-works to clear or bleach the glass. 



MAGNESIUM. 

Magnesium is a white metal ; when pure, it has a 
silvery lustre and appearance ; it is very light and flexi- 
ble ; a thin ribbon of the metal will take fire from an 
ignited match, when it will burn with a brilliant white 
light. 

Magnesium is found in hornblende, meerschaum, 
soap-stone, serpentine and other rocks, and is very hard 
to obtain, and is very expensive. 

Magnesium is used for a light in taking photographs 
at night ; views of coal mines, interiors of dark churches, 
etc. Magnesium lanterns are much used for purposes 
of illumination ; the metal is drawn into a thin ribbon, 
and is fed in front of a concave mirror (by means of 
cloc^-work) at the focus of which it burns. 



ALUMINUM. 

Aluminum is a bright silver-white metal, it is only 
one-fourth as heavy as silver ; it is ductile, malleable 
and tenacious ; it receives its name from alum in which 
it occurs ; it is also called the clay-metal. 



204 METALS AND ALLOYS, 

Aluminum is found in slate-mica clay, and in all the 
clay rocks, and from these substances we obtain our 
entire supply. This metal is but very little used at 
present in the useful arts, but it must ultimately come 
into common use, for, next to oxygen and silicon, it is 
the most abundant element of the earth ; every clay- 
bank is a mine of it, but the metal is very difficult to 
obtain, and can only be obtained by the galvanic pro- 
cess. 



CHROMIUM. 

Chromium is a metal prized only for its numerous 
brilliant colors. It is very rare, and is mainly found in 
chromic iron ore. The richest deposits of this ore in 
the world are found in this country, and the bare hills 
near Baltimore supply almost the whole world with 
chromic ore. Besides Baltimore, this ore is found in 
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Vermont and Massachusetts. 
The color of this ore is a brownish-black like a hard 
brown iron ore. 



COBALT. 

Cobalt is a reddish-white metal, it is found in com- 
bination with arsenic. This metal is rare, and is little 
used in the useful arts of life. Its oxide is used for 
coloring glass, and gives the glass a beautiful blue color. 
It is also used in laundries to -give a finished look to 
cambrics, linen, etc. 



POTASSIUM. 

Potassium is a silvery- white metal, it is soft enough 
to be spread with a knife, and light enough to float like 
cork on water. Its affinity for oxygen is so great that 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 205 

it is always kept under the surface of naphtha which 
contains no oxygen. Potassium, when thrown on water, 
decomposes it and sets free one atom of hydrogen, and 
the heat is so great that the hydrogen catches fire and 
burns with some volatilized potassium, and gives the 
water the appearance of being on fire. 

Potassium is manufactured from wood ashes, the 
ashes are first converted into lye, and then into potash, 
and from the potash the metal is obtained by distilling 
it in iron bottles at an intense heat, and the green 
vapors of potassium are coPxdensed in receivers of 
naphtha. It is a difficult and dangerous j^rocess, for 
the vapor takes fire instantly on contact with air or 
water. This metal is but little used in its pure state, 
and is seldom made except for experimental purposes 
in the laboratory. Combined with other substances, it 
forms potash, pearlash, saleratus, saltpetre, and several 
other substances. 



SODIUM 



Sodium is a silvery- white metal, and is very much 
like potassium. It is manufactured in a similar way to 
that metal, but is more easily managed. When thrown 
on water it rolls over its surface like a tiny silver ball ; 
if the water be heated iu bursts into a bright yellow 
blaze. This metal forms the principal part of common 
salt, and is found in all salt waters. 



MINERALS AND GASES. 



The following description of minerals and gases has 
been added to this work upon metals, that the foundry- 
man may more thoroughly understand the nature of 
the substances he has to deal with. 



FUELS. 



All the minerals which contain sufficient carbon to 
support combustion are called fuels, and as they con- 
tain carbon, hydrogen, or impurities in excess, they are 
designated anthracite coal, bituminous coal, brown coal, 
mineral charcoal, peet, etc. All these fuels have their 
respective peculiarities iu burning. The anthracite 
coal is very hard, and contains but very little hydrogen. 
It burns with very little flames or snjoke, and liberates 
a great amount of heat, but it must be burnt in a stove 
or furnace with a strong draft, so as to supply a large 
amount of oxygen from the air to unite with the carbon 
and hydrogen of the fuel. 

Bituminous coal contains more hydrogen than the 
anthracite coal, and is more volatile and easily burnt. 
It burns with a bright flame, and throws off" a black 
smoke which will deposit soot in our stove-pipes and 



208 MINERALS AND GASES. 

chimneys, and when this kind of coal is used in our 
stoves we must have large pipes and a good draft, or 
the pipe will be choked up in a short time with soot. 
This coal burns rapidly, and liberates more heat in the 
same time than the anthracite coal, but it is also con- 
sumed faster. 

Brown coal is composed of about the same proportion 
of gases as the bituminous coal, and burns in about the 
same way, but it contains more mineral impurities, and 
leaves more ashes and cinders. 

Mineral charcoal is generally burnt with bituminous 
coal. 

Peat generally burns with a heavy smoke, and seems 
to smolder away rather than burn, and does not gener- 
ate a very rapid and intense heat. 



MINERAL CHARCOAL. 

Mineral charcoal is frequently found in small veins 
mixed in with bituminous coal. These small veins are 
seldom more than one-fourth of an inch thick, and gen- 
erally are a mere scale. They are generally found near 
the top of the coal vein, and only in the softer or poorer 
qualities of coal. More or less charcoal is found in all 
bituminous coal veins along the Ohio river, but in such 
small quantities as to render its separation from the 
coal impracticable. Mineral charcoal has never been 
found in this country in sufficiently large quantities to 
be of any practical value in the arts. 



, ANTHRACITE COAL. 

Anthracite coal is the purest native mineral carbon of 
which we have any knowledge. It is found in great 
abundance in Eastern Peunsylvania, and is the princi- 



MINERALS AND GASES. 209 

pal fuel used in the Eastern and Middle States for 
heating purposes and for melting metals. This coal 
forms heavy veins, and masses in the metamorphic rocks 
of the eastern slope of the Alleghany mountains ; but 
it is seldom found on the western slope of those moun- 
tains. This coal is very hard, and generally very black, 
but often of a bluish cast of great lustre. It breaks in 
irregular fragments, and the harder or best quality of 
it is not affected by the atmospheric air ; but the softer 
coal from the upper veins will crumble if it is exposed 
to the air for a long time. The chemical composition 
of anthracite coal is almost entirely pure carbon, with 
a small percentage of hydrogen and a little ashes. 
From being so hard, it is more difficult to kindle than 
the bituminous coals, and requires the use of more 
kindling-wood to ignite it. When this coal is ignited 
in a considerable quantity, it creates an intense heat ; 
but in small quantities it does not burn well, and re- 
quires a strong draft and a small pipe to support com- 
bustion in a small stove. This coal is the only fuel that 
is adapted in its native state for fuel in the blast-fur- 
nace. All others have to be charred or coked before 
using ; and for this purpose it is extensively used in 
the States of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, 
and Maryland. This coal is often called the hard coal 
stone. 



BROWN COAL. 

Brown coal is distributed more generally than is 
known. It is found both above and below the rocks of 
all ages. It is found in all the states of the Union, but 
it is never found in extensive layers, or veins, like the 
bituminous, or anthracite coal ; but is deposited mostly 
in elliptical masses, or thin veins, which is seldom con- 
tinuous. This coal is sometimes found in jet-black 
masses, and also of a brown color ; we find it as hard 
14 



210 MINERALS AND GASES. 

as anthracite, and so soft as to be crumbled into fine 
dust with the fingers ; but it is characterized by its 
making a brown powder when pulverized, which may 
be more or less dark, but always shows its brown color. 
This coal always contains more impurities than either 
of the other coals, and makes more ashes, and is very 
sulphurous; and the ashes and sulphur combine in 
burning, and form clinkers on the grate-bars, causing 
trouble to the fireman, and making it more difiicult to 
keep up the fire. All the coals that form a large amount 
of clinkers, are generally of the brown coal nature. 
Brown coal, that does not contain sufiicient carbon to 
support combustion, is generally used for the manu- 
facture of alum, either by burning or roasting it in 
large piles, and is considered the best material that can 
be obtained for that purpose. The brown coal is often 
called lignite. 



BITUMINOUS COAL. 

The name bituminous is applied to all mineral coal, 
that has never been properly defined, and usually 
means a soft, black coal, very rich in carbon and hydro- 
gen, which burns with a dense, black smoke, at first. 
A natural and well-marked distinction between this 
and the anthracite coal, is its property of coking, that 
is, if it be heated to a red heat, it blazes, swells, and 
finally bakes together, forming a spongy mass, called 
coke ; and if the fire is extinguished, at the proper 
time, by shutting off" the supply of air, this soft, spongy 
mass forms the hard coke used for melting iron ; but if 
the supply of air be not shut off", the coal burns to ashes. 
The coke made from bituminous coal, generally par- 
takes of the impurities contained in the coal ; and in 
making coke, for use in cupolas, or furnaces, coal should 
be selected that is free from sulphur, and other impuri- 
ties that will injure iron. The Pittsburg and Yough- 



ITINERA LS AND GASES. 211 

iogheny river coal is of this quality, and is the principal 
coal used in the manufacture of coke, for foundry pur- 
poses, in this country. The only coal that is black, and 
makes a black powder, but does not coke, is anthracite ; 
and all the coal, which makes a brown powder, but does 
not coke, is denominated brown coal. The bituminous 
coal is black, and makes a black powder, similar to the 
anthracite coal ; but it is distinguished from it by pos- 
sessing a more slaty structure, and its tendency to form 
slack when exposed to the air. This coal is generally 
very hard to break, across its fibrous structure, but 
may be split in direction of its fiber, the same as wood. 
Some of this coal breaks into beautiful cubical pieces, 
of which the Pittsburg vein shows many fine samples, 
and some veins break so fine as to form mere slack, as is 
the case wdth a vein found near Connellsville, Pennsylva- 
nia. This coal, when exposed to the air, will slack down 
almost as fast as burnt lime-stone. When exposed to the 
air, this coal is unfit for shipping, in its raw or pure 
state, on account of its tendency to break up fine and form 
slack ; it is principally manufactured into coke, and 
forms what is known as Connellsville coke, which is the 
very best coke that can be obtained for melting iron in 
cupolas, for foundry use. 

Bituminous coal is very easily lit, and after the first 
heavy smoke has been driven off", it burns with a bright 
vivid flame, similar to that of pine wood ; and the 
anthracite coal usually burns with a faint blue flame, 
p when first lit ; but after it gets hot, the flame disap- 
"^pears altogether, except when supplied with a strong 
draft of air, when it turns to a faint yellow color. The 
chemical composition of bituminous coal diff'ers from 
the anthracite only, in the larger amount of hydrogen 
it contains ; this, in combination with carbon, forms 
bitumen, which can be extracted by distillation, in iron 
retorts, and from this circumstance is derived its name, 
bituminous coal. 



212 MINERALS AND GASES. 

Bituminous coal is found in almost all the States of 
the Union, and in vast deposits in the Mississippi 
Valley and the valleys of most all of its tributary 
streams, but it has not yet been worked to .any extent 
along the Mississippi river ; but along the Ohio river 
and through the v^estern parts of Pennsylvania and 
Maryland this coal is very extensively worked. The 
quality of this coal varies in the different veins. West 
of the Alleghany mountains the Pittsburg vein is con- 
sidered to be the best. This vein is of vast extent, and 
may be traced to a distance of one hundred miles from 
the city of Pittsburg, and it furnishes at every point 
where it has been opened the same kind of coal. This 
vein is named the Pittsburg vein, because Pittsburg is 
supposed to be located about the center of it. There 
are indications that some of the thick veins found in 
Maryland are a continuation of the Pittsburg vein. 
Should these indications prove true, this vein must ex- 
tend through the Alleghany mountains and connect the 
Eastern and Western coal fields. The coal mined from the 
Pittsburg vein along the Youghiogheny river, a branch 
of the Monongahela river, is considered the finest bitu- 
minous coal mined in this country. It is of a beautiful 
jet black color, almost free from sulphur, and of a high 
lustre, frequently displaying the colors of the rainbow. 
This coal is soft and easily broken, but is not very liable to 
slack down when exposed to the air. It contains a great 
deal of carbon, and is considered a good coal for mak- 
ing gas, and it also makes a good, strong, pure coSe, * 
almost equal to the Connellsville coke, for - elting iron. 
The Pittsburg vein does not furnish an equally beauti- 
ful coal throughout its extent ; still it produces in every 
part a superior coal to other veins. The best coal of 
this vein is found within one hundred miles of Pitts- 
burg, along the Monongahela river, while for one hun- 
dred miles along the Ohio river, below Pittsburg, it con- 
tains more sulphur, is softer, and leaves more ashes, and 



IHNERALS AND GASES. 21B 

is not near so good for coking. This vein varies in 
thickness; at and above Pittsburg it is seldom over 
seven feet, and generally from four to five feet, vv^hile be- 
low Pittsburg it is found in heavier veins, sometimes as 
thick as ten and fourteen feet. Coal from the vein above 
Pittsburg can always be sold for one or two cents per 
bushel more than coal from the vein below. The geolog- 
ical position of this coal forms a particular era, a separate 
period in the formation of rocks. It is not found in the 
old rocks, in granite or its associates, nor is it found in 
the transition or metamorphic rocks ; yet in Virginia a 
bituminous coal is found, imbedded upon granite and 
surrounded by transition rocks of a different formation. 
This coal is not a true bituminous coal, but forms a link 
between it and the brown coal. This coal burns with a 
vivid flame and forms a soft coke that is easily crum- 
bled and not fitted for melting metals. This coal, 
although a bitumen, is not a true bituminous coal of the 
secondary formation. It is useless to look for bitumi- 
nous coal in the transition and metamorphic rocks on 
the eastern slope of the Alleghany mountains, or along 
the lakes, or in the Rocky mountains ; but we may find 
brown or anthracite coal in these regions, but no true 
bituminous coal, for stoves and heating purposes. It 
does not make much difference whether we burn the 
brown or bituminous coal, but it makes a great differ- 
ence in our cupolas or blatt furnaces, because even the 
best kinds of brown coal generally contain a large 
amount of sulphur, which injures the iron. Even the 
best bituminous coal must be coked to drive off the 
hydrogen and part of the sulphur before it can be used 
for smelting metals. But the anthracite coal contains 
but little sulphur or hydi ogen, and can be used in its 
native state for smelting metals from their ores, or for 
re-melting the metals. The bituminous coal is often 
called soft stone coal. 



214 MINERALS AND GASES, 



PEAT. 

Peat, or turf, is not found to any extent in the United 
States, although some little is found on Long Island, 
N. Y., and at some few other places along the sea-coast ; 
and in some of the Western States, peat is a black, car- 
bonized material found in low, swampy ground. It is 
formed by plants which grow and sink on the very 
spot where they existed, and are converted into a kind 
of mineral charcoal by the action of the water and ele- 
ments. Peat is cut from these swamps or bogs and 
dried and used as fuel in Ireland and some other coun- 
tries ; but in this country the peat-beds are too scarce, 
and mineral coal too abundant, to render the working 
of peat-beds profitable. Peat, when well charred, is 
equal to charcoal for the working of steel, and it is 
much used for that purpose where it can be procured. 



CLAY. 



There are a great variety of clays. They are distin- 
guished from each other by their different colors, and 
different grades of fusibility, etc. And they are dis- 
tinguished from other earths by containing a certain 
amount of alumina, which imparts to clays their re- 
markable adhesiveness. All clays are plastic, and may 
be formed into various shapes ; and they will retain the 
shape given them, and may be hardened by exposure 
to atmospheric air, or be solidified by fire to such a de- 
gree as to yield fire en being struck by a piece of steel. 
One of the common characteristics of all clays is their 
ready diffusibility in water, in which, although insolu- 
ble, they remain suspended longer than any other min- 
eral. The more alumina they contain, the harder they 
are to dissolve in water, and the greater will be the 



FUNERALS AND GASES. 215 

shrinkage and liability to crack when drying. All clays 
have a great atfinity for moisture, and when dried in 
the air, or not burnt too hard, they will adhere to the 
tongue. Most all the clays are the residum of decom- 
posed rocks, and their great adhesiveness causes them 
to be found in beds of considerable extent, but always 
separated by a well-defined line from other matter. Its 
affinity for metallic oxides, and its combination with 
them, causes a great variation in its appearance, and 
by it combining with these diiSferent oxides is formed 
the different kinds of clay, such as the fire-clays, which 
are characterized by their resistance to fire ; the potter 
clay, from its adaptation to the manufacture of pots 
and stone-ware ; the China clay, from its adaptation to 
the manufacture of China-ware ; while loam clays par- 
take of the general characteristics of all the other more 
properly-defined clays. 



FIRE-CLAY. 

Fire-clay is a material that is found with veins of 
coal. It is generally below the coal formation, but it is 
sometimes found above or between the veins of coal. It 
is also sometimes found in iron ore districts, and the 
veins are frequently interspersed with an iron ore of 
the nature of clay. This clay breaks in the form of 
short slate, and falls into small, square grains, and is 
converted into plastic clay by the action of the atmos- 
phere, which may be seen where the veins crop out. 
Fire-clay is of a gray or dirty yellow color. It is soft 
and easily broken. It can be mixed with or dissolved 
in water, and be converted into clay-wash or mortar. 
Fire-clay receives its name from its resistance to the 
action of fire, and it is extensively used in the manu- 
facture of fire-bricks, and for lining blast-furnaces, 
cupolas, re verberatory furnaces, etc., for which purposes 



216 MINERALS AND GASES. 

it is admirably suited. This clay is found in almost all 
the States of the Union, and in great abundance in the 
States of Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and, in fact, 
all through the coal-fields. These veins of clay are 
much worked along the Alleghany and Ohio rivers, and 
all through the West. There is a very extensive fire- 
brick works at Ciotoville, on the Ohio river, and there 
is a very heavy vein of the first quality of fire-clay 
near Blairsville, Pennsylvaliia, from which large quan- 
tities of fire-bricks are manufactured. The veins of 
this clay often contain lime in admixture, which injures 
its fire-proof quality. Lime, if mixed with it, is always 
found at the top or bottom of the vein, and fire-brick 
made of clay from a limestone region will not stand the 
fire as well as clay from either above or below the coal 
veins. All fire-clay contains a little iron, which does 
not injure it for making fire-brick, but renders it use- 
less for the manufacture of porcelain or stone-ware, 
pure clay is infusible in any heat, but if it contains 
a large percentage of iron or lime, it then becomes 
fusible, and in lining cupolas or other iron -furnaces 
with it, it soon takes up iron and becomes fusible at a 
high heat and is converted into a black slag. If the 
loam or clay obtained near a foundry is not sufficiently 
refractory for daubing the cupola, it may be made more 
refractory by mixing it with a pure or coarse sand. 
Some kinds of loam or clay must be mixed with one- 
half sand before they will resist the fire. The addition 
of a little salt also makes some of the clays more re- 
fractory. 



LOAM 



Loam, or common clay, as it is more commonly called, 
IS more generally diffused than fire-clay. It contains 
but little alumina, and is chiefly composed of silica, or 



MINERALS AND GASES. 217 

sand, with lime, iron, magnesia, mica, and a variety of 
other substances. Loam is more or less tenacious, and 
becomes more tenacious and adhesive the more it is 
w^orked ; but it is generally very brittle when dried, 
and may be easily crumbled in the hand unless it be 
burned in an oven, when it becomes very hard, but 
brittle, and at a high heat it fuses and melts into a 
black, tough cinder or slag. Loam, like fire-clay, is 
rendered more fusible when united with iron, lime, or 
any metallic oxides. Common salt or saltpetre renders 
this clay more fusible, although they render some of the 
other clays less fusible. To the loam class belong all 
the blue, yellow, and red clays. When these clays 
contain any soluble salt, we can discover it by drying 
it, when the salt will form in small crystals on the out- 
side and be visible in the form of a fine, white powder 
or flour, and by touching it to our tongue we can easily 
discover the kind of salt it contains ; but if this class 
of clay contains any salt, it will not make a good daub- 
ing for a cupola or furnace, because it fuses too easily. 
Loam is used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and 
the coarser kind of potters' ware. The loam-clays are 
very abundant, and are found in all parts of the coun- 
try. The best loams for standing the fire are generally 
found on hill-sides or on their summits. The yellow or 
red clays generally stand the fire better than, the blue 
clays, and in all cases the clay that contains the most 
sharp or coarse sand stands the fire best, and before 
using loam for daubing in a cupola, it should be mixed 
with as much coarse sand as it will hold together. 



POTTERS' CLAY. 

Potters' clay, as it is called, is more compact, and 
more tenacious and smoother, than loam, and will re- 
ceive a higher polish by rubbing it when moist with the 



218 MINERALS AND GASES, 

hand, which polish it will retain when dry. It takes 
the impression of the hand perfectly. Mixed with 
water, it forms a somewhat transparent paste. Potters' 
clay is always white or gray, and if it is good clay it 
will not alter its color when exposed to a red heat. It 
will resist the action of fire better than loam, and is in- 
fusible at the highest heat of a porcelain oven ; and it 
becomes very hard and not very brittle by the action of 
fire. When this clay is produced by the decomposition 
of feldspar, it has a gritty feeling, and is called Kaolin, 
which is the principal material used in the manufac- 
ture of porcelain. Considerable practical experience is 
required in the selection of clay to make first-class 
ware. If the clay changes its color on being exposed 
to a white heat, it is not good clay, and the Avare made 
from it will be brittle, or will not endure being heated 
in the oven sufficient to harden it without melting or 
alteration of the form. Good potters' clay is extensively 
distributed throughout the country. It generally lays 
below the loam-clays, and is thought to have been 
formed by the decomposition of slate rock. This clay 
would make a better daubing for cupolas than loam, but 
it is more difficult to obtain, and in many cases it is 
more expensive than fire-clay ; but where it can be pro- 
cured cheap it should be used in preference to loam. 



CHINA CLAY. 

China clay, or porcelain clay, is infusible in the most 
intense heat of any ordinary fire, and retains its white 
color, and does not shrink so much as the potters' clay. 
It is formed in nature by the decomposition of feldspar 
and granitic rocks. It feels more gritty and crumbles 
easier than the potters' clay, and is not so diff'usible in 
water. This clay is found in abundance in all the 
Eastern and Southern States of a superior quality for 



MINERALS AND GASES. 219 

the manufacture of china and porcelain ware ; but it is 
seldom found in the Western States, or where the gran- 
itic or feldspar rocks are not found. This clay is more 
expensive to work than potters' clay, but the ware made 
from it is stronger and whiter, and is sold at a higher 
price. All our white ware is made of this clay. 



SOAPSTONE. 

Soapstone is of a grayish-white, and often of a green- 
ish color. It is found in all the States of the Union, 
and in great abundance on the eastern slope of the Alle- 
g-hany mountains, and in all the coal fields. It is used 
in the manufacture of the French chalk, used by tailors. 
It is an excellent fire-proof material, and when finely 
ground it is used for dusting the faces of molds in stove 
foundries, to impart a smooth and sharp face to the 
casting and prevent the sand from adhering to it. For 
this purpose it is sometimes used alone or in its pure 
state, but when used in its pure state it gives the cast- 
ings a very white color, which is not desirable, and for 
this reason it is generally mixed with hard coal and 
charcoal finely pulverized. Soapstone constitutes the 
principal fire-proof ingredient of all foundry blacking 
or return faceon, and is also used in fire-clay and in the 
manufacture of fire-brick.. 



ASBESTOS. 

Asbestos, or Mountain Wood, is a mineral that is 
found on the eastern side of the Alleghany mountains. 
It is a fibrous mineral and often appears as if composed 
of fibres. Its fibre very much resembles the fibre of 
wood, and it is easily split like wood in the direction of 
its fibre. It is verv elastic and malleable, has a silky 



220 MINERALS AND GASES. 

lustre, and feels as soft as silk. It is of different colors, 
white, green and brown. 

Asbestos is characterized by its resistance to the in- 
fluence of heat, and the poor qualities are used as fire- 
proof material for lining furnaces, and the superior 
qualities are sometimes woven into lamp-wick, etc. It 
will resist the influence of heat better than any of the 
fire-clays in use at the present time. It will even resist 
the action of chemicals used in forming the compound 
used in porcelaining hollow-ware. It is found in great 
abinidance in some of the Eastern States, and at differ- 
ent points all along the eastern slope of the Alleghany 
mountains. This material can in many places be pro- 
cured at less cost than fire-clay, and I do not see why 
it has not come into general use for the lining of fur- 
naces. If ground and combined with fire-clay, it might 
make a superior fire-brick to any in use. 

The Gazetta Industrial gives the following account of 
an interesting exhibition of asbestos recently held in 
Rome, and at which this singular material was repre- 
sented in all its multifarious forms and conditions, from 
the crude state as mined, to the most valuable indus- 
trial preparations. Thus, among this curious variety 
there were samples of thread made from the mineral, 
which were stronger than the best English cotton ; 
cloth, from coarse bagging to a fabric as fine as linen, 
and paper for writing, printing and sheathing build- 
ings, and pasteboard. The Italian asbestos paper costs 
about forty cents per pound, and is found especially 
serviceable for important documents which it is desired 
to preserve from fire. To illustrate the fire-proof quali- 
ties of the pasteboard, a case made therefrom was filled 
with ordinary paper, and another case of pasteboard, 
not containing asbestos, but in every other respect ex- 
actly similar, was likewise filled, and both were thrown 
into a fire. In the space of some five minutes the un- 
prepared pasteboard box and its contents were wholly 



MINERALS AND GASES. 221 

consumed, while to that period the asbestos box retained 
its original appearance and condition unchanged, and 
without receiving the slightest injury. 



SANDS. 

Sand, like clay, is very abundant, and there is a 
great variety of kinds, as the sharp-sand, the fire-sand, 
the loam-sand, etc. The sharp-sand is a hard, granu- 
lar substance, very sharp and gritty. It consists prin- 
cipally of quartz rock, which appears to have been worn 
off and decomposed by friction. It is found in the form 
of strata, and in loose alluvial deposits of immense ex- 
tent in all parts of the country. In beds or banks of 
this sand we frequently find well-preserved pebbles of 
rock crystal, which is most common along the sea-shore 
and on the shores of the lakes. Sharp-sand is very 
extensively used in the preparation of lime-mortar, in 
the manufacture of glass, in making water-filters, and, 
where fire-sand cannot be obtained, it is used for mix- 
ing with fire-clay and other clays used in daubing and 
repairing cupolas and furnaces ; and it is the i)rincipal 
sand used in making dry-sand cores and in dry-sand 
molding. For these purposes it is mixed with a little 
flour, resin or molasses-water, to make it more adhesive 
and hard when dry. 

Fire-sand is also a sharp, coarse, open sand, and is 
generally of a bright yellow color. This sand is char- 
acterized by its resistance to fire, and is principally 
used in daubing and repairing cupolas and furnaces, 
and for mixing with clays to make mortar for laying 
up fire-brick and other furnace linings. 

Loam-sand is found in great abundance in all parts 
of the country. It contains a small portion of alumina, 
and is of a more clayey nature than either of the other 
sands. It is the sand principally used in foundries for 



222 MINERALS AND GASES, 

molding The fine-grained or finer quality is used for 
green-sand molding and light work, and the coarser 
sands are used for heavy work in green-sands, and 
some of them will make a good dry-sand core or mold 
without the addition of flour or resin. This grade is 
principally used in making pipes, which are generally 
molded on end and skim-dried before casting. 

Gravel is a coarse sand that is mixed with stones or 
boulders of all sizes. This sand or gravel is found in 
the beds of rivers and streams, and often in large depo- 
sits or hills. In this sand we find valuable metallic 
substances, such as gold, platinum, copper, iron, etc., 
which are mixed with the sand and often imbedded in 
the boulders. From this sand we obtain our en ire 
supply of platinum, and from it all the gold found in 
California and all the gold diggings, were formerly ob- 
tained, and from it a great deal is obtained at the pres- 
ent time; but in California, at the present -time, the 
largest amounts of gold are obtained by crushing the 
quartz rock. 



CALCIUM. 

Calcium is found in gypsum, in the bones of our 
body, in the bones of animals and in lime-stone rock. 
Caustic, or quicklime, is a calcium oxide ; it is obtained 
by heating lime-stone, in large kilns, with coal, or other 
fuel, and burning off" the carbonic oxide, which leaves 
the calcium oxide, or common lime, used for mortar, 
plaster, etc. Burnt lime-stone is a strong alkali, and 
will corrode the flesh ; it has a great affinity for water, 
and will absorb it from the air, and be expanded by it 
to several times its original size, with the evolution of 
much heat. Whitewash is the milk of lime, or lime 
dissolved in water. Water-lime contains a little clay, 
and will harden under water. Concrete is a cement of 



MINERALS AND GASES. 223 

coarse gravel and water lime ; it is of great durability. 
Mortar is made of lime, sand and water, mixed in dif- 
ferent proportions. If mortar is exposed to the air, it 
becomes hard, but if it is protected from the air it will 
remain without hardening for many years ; it is said 
that mortar has been found in the pyramids of Egypt 
that was still in its soft state. Lime is also used for a 
fertilizer; in this case, it is spread over the laud, and 
it rapidly decomposes all vegetable matter, and thus 
forms a manure for the plants ; it also sets free the alka- 
lies that are combined with the soil, and becomes itself 
a manure. The calcium carbonates constitute not only 
lime-stone, but also marl, marble, chalk, corals, shells, 
etc. In lime-stone regions, the water sometimes dis- 
solves the calcium of the rock, and as it trickles down 
into caverns it will form stalactites, which depend from 
the top of the caverns, and stalagmites, that rise from 
the floor ; these are found in great abundance in the 
mammoth cave, in Kentucky. Marble is a white, crys- 
tallized lime-stone. Chalk, or niarl, is a porous kind of 
lime-stone, formed by beds of shells ; it is not so com- 
pact as the common lime-stone. Whiting is ground 
chalk. Plaster-of-Paris is made from gypsum, a beau- 
tiful white rock, which is so soft that it can be cut with 
a knife into rings, vases, etc. ; when it is heated, it 
loses 'its water, and is then ground into a fine powder ; 
when used, it is made into a thin paste, with water ; it 
first swells up, and then immediately hardens into a 
solid mass ; it will even harden under water ; it is used 
in copying statues and medals, forming molds for the 
fusible metals, etc. The plaster used as a festilizer, is 
unburnt gypsum, which has been ground to a powder ; 
its action as a fertilizer is somewhat like that of lime. 



224 MINERALS AND GASES. 



MARBLE. 

Marble is a species of lime-stone, and is termed, by 
chemists, a calcium carbonate ; it differs from lime- 
stone, in being more sound and compact, and generally 
of a more bright, clear color. All lime-stone that can 
be quarried in large blocks, without fissures and strati- 
fication, may be termed marble. Marble has a very 
fine grain, and is adapted to receiving and retaining a 
fine polish ; it is of a soft nature, and can easily be cut 
into slabs, or carved into any desired shape ; the best 
quality of it seems to harden in the air, and is almost 
as enduring as granite. White marble has a clear, 
pure color, and not a dirty-grey, like the common lime- 
stone, and the value of variegated marble is determined 
by the clearness of its colors. Marbles of all kinds are 
found in great abundance in the eastern and southern 
states, and some very fine varieties of variegated, or 
breccia marble, is found in Maryland. Very little mar- 
ble is found in the western states, until we get to the 
Rocky mountains. Marble spalls are used as a flux 
in blast furnaces, and also in cupolas, in place of com- 
mon limestone ; when used in a blast furnace they 
generally make a superior iron to the common lime- 
stone flux, but on account of expense, their use is 
restricted to certain localities where marble is abundant. 



LITHOG-RAPHIC STONE. 

Lithographic stone is a fine-grained limestone, still 
finer than marble. It receives the name lithographic 
stone because it is used by engravers for engraving 
upon. This stone is distinguished from marble or com- 
mon limestone in being of a more slaty structure, and 
breaking into thin slabs. This stone is not found in the 



MINERALS AND GASES. 225 

United States of a sufficiently good quality to be used 
in the art of engraving, and at the present time we re- 
ceive our entire supply of it from Germany, where a 
superior quality is found in great abundance. But this 
stone is rapidly going out of use for engraving, and 
wood, copper and steel being substituted for it on ac- 
count of being engraved with more certainty, and in 
many cases producing better work. 



PUMMEY-STONE. 

Pummey, or rotten-stone, is a soft mineral of an 
earthy fracture and very fine texture. Its color is gen- 
erally a yellow^-gray or dirty- white. It does not adhere 
to the tongue like clay, and is easily pulverized. It is 
extensively used for polishing iron and wood, and for 
rubbing down paints. It is found in abundance in this 
country. 



SILICON. 

Silicon, or silex, is found in combination with oxygen, 
and is commonly called quartz. This element is very 
abundant, and probably comprises nearly one-half of the 
earth's crust. When pure it is transparent and color- 
less, as in crystal rock. Silicon is principally used in 
the manufacture of glass. 



BARIUM. 

Barium is a white mineral noted for its weight, and 
is often termed heavy spar. The term barium is de- 
rived from the Greek, and means heavy. This mineral 
is largely used for adulterating white-lead. 
15 



226 MINERALS AND GASES. 



EMERY. 

There is an abundance of emery, or emery-producing 
rock, found in the United States. An excellent emery, 
which is extensively used in the manufacture of €mery- 
"wheels, for polishing and grinding metals, etc., is 
procured by pulverizing the harder varieties of 
dolomite, or whetstone rock. The hardest and best 
quality of emery is procured from korund, a material 
similar to the dolomites of the gold regions. These mate- 
rials are found in great abundance in the Southern 
States, and in all the Western gold regions, and at the 
present time a large amount of emery is produced from 
these rocks in the United States, which is principally 
used in the manufacture of emery-wheels, emery-pa- 
per, etc. 



G- A R N E T S. 

Grarnet is a very hard material of a dark-red or brown 
color. It is found in large quantities in different parts 
of the United States, and particularly in the gold re- 
gions. It is usually found imbedded in and scattered 
through rock in small crystals or grains. The finer 
qualities of garnets are generally used in the manufac- 
ture of jewelry, and the less brilliant specimens are 
pulverized and used as emery ; and they make a superior 
quality of emery to either dolomite or korund ; but they 
are more expensive than either of these substances, and 
for that reason are but little used for emery.- Yet there 
is an abundance of the poorer qualities of them found 
in the Southern States, and a profitable business might 
be done in converting them into emery. 



MINERALS AND GASES, 227 



AMBER. 



Amber is a solid, resinous mineral of various shades 
of color, but mostly of a brownish yellow, resembling 
common resin ; in fact it is a fossil resin, which has 
exuded in some past age of the world's history from 
trees. Now extinct, it is sometimes found containing 
various insects perfectly preserved, which were, without 
doubt, entangled in the mass w^hile it was yet soft. 
The most characteristic feature of amber is its tine 
aromatic odor, which its emits when thrown on hot coals. 
It is found in the vicinity of layers of brown coal, and 
is often cast up by the sea, and is found in large 
quantities along the shores of the Baltic. This mineral 
is not found to any extent in this country. The liner 
specimens of it are used for ornaments, mouth-pieces, 
necklaces, buttons, etc., and it is the principle in- 
gredient of all fine carriage varnish, and the poor 
qualities are used in the manufacture of common resin, 
for which purpose it is the most valuable mineral that 
can be found. 



ALUM-SLATE. 

Alum-slate is the material commonly used in the 
manufacture of crystallized alum. It is a dark colored 
slate resembling coal-slate, but the best alum-slates are 
of a more clayey natiu-e than the coal-slate, and often 
contains so much bituminous matter as to render it 
combustible if piled up in large masses and kindled, in 
this slate. The dark color indicates the presence of 
bitumen or carbon, and yellow spots or streaks indicate 
the presence of sulphur. The sulphurous or pyrites 
slates are considered the best for making alum, for in 
obtaining the alum from these slates, sulphuric acid is 
used to disolve them, and if the slate contains consider - 



228 MINERALS AND GASES. 

able sulphur, the acid may be formed by adding a 
solution of ammonium sulphate. Alum-slates are found 
in great abundance in all parts of the United States, 
and an excellent quality is found in all the western 
coal fields, from which large quantities of crystallized 
alum is manufactured. Alum is much used by dyers 
in dying woolen and jcotton goods ; it unites with the 
coloring matter and binds it to the fibres of the cloth. 
Alum-slate is used by potters and ware manufacturers 
for glazing and giving the ware a fine finish. This is 
done by simply throwing the slate into the oven, where 
it is volatilized by the heat, and is decomposed by the 
hot clay and forms a coating over its surface. 

Alum stone is a hard volcanic rock, from which 
Roman alum is manufactured in Italy. It is not found 
to any extent in the United States, and is not used for 
the manufacture of alum in this country. 



ASPHALTUM. 

Asphaltum is a black, resinous material that exudes 
from the earth in a *fluid state along with water near 
salt or brine springs. It is similar to petroleum oil 
w^hen it first comes from the earth, but becomes hard 
like pitch or resin when exposed to the ^ir for some 
time. It burns with a dense, black smoke, and is 
sometimes used in the manufacture of lampblack ; it is 
much used in paving streets, and the famous pro- 
menades of the boulevards in Paris is made with it ; it 
forms a natural cement for laying stone, and was used 
for that purpose in building the walls of Babylon, for 
which it was obtained from the fountain of Is, on the 
banks of the river Euphrates. It was a prominent in- 
gredient of the Greek fire, which was formerly used 
by the nations of the East in their naval wars. 

Asphaltum is found in immense quantities in dif- 



MINERALS AND GASES. 229 

ferent parts of the world. There is a lake of it on the 
island of Trinidad that is nearly three miles in circum- 
ference, and a large lake of it has lately been found in 
California ; it is also found in Canada in large quantities. 



SULPHUR. 

Sulphur is a bright yellow substance, hard and very 
brittle, is a non-conductor of heat and crackles when 
grasped with a warm hand. It is found native in vol- 
canic regions, and is mined at Mount ^tna in large 
quantities. It is found united with metals, forming the 
sulphides known as iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites, galena 
blende, cinnabar, etc. Combined with oxygen, it forms 
sulphates of silver, gypsum, heavy spar, etc. In com- 
merce sulphur is sold as brimstone, which is formed by 
melting the sulphur and running it into molds ; it is 
also sold as flower of sulphur. 

Pure sulphur is not found in the United States in 
sufficient quantities to be of practical value. The chief 
sources from which we obtain our supply is from the 
sulphurets of metals, which we possess in great abund- 
ance. Iron-pyrites contain a large percentage of sul- 
phur, and from it sulphur is obtained by simple distil- 
lation, in iron or fire-clay retorts, when it yields the 
greater part of the sulphui' it contains ; the remainder, 
sulphuret of iron, is easily converted into copperas. Sul- 
phur cannot be dissolved in water, and hence is taste- 
less ; it can only be dissolved in oil of turpentine and 
benzole. When it is melted and heated to a high heat, 
it changes to a thick dark-colored liquid resembling 
molasses. If this is poured into cold water, it becomes 
elastic like india-rubber. In this form it is used for 
taking impressions of statues, medals, coin, etc. After 
a time, the sulphur regains its hardness as well a^ its 
brittleness, if exposed to the action of the air. Sulphur 



280 MINERALS AND GASES. 

is extensively used in the manufacture of matches and 
gunpowder, but it is principally used in the manufac- 
ture of sulphuric acids. The burning of sulphur forms 
a very suffocating gas, which is very poisonous, and 
will extinguish combustion ; it is used f(jr bleaching 
silk, straw and woolen goods. Chlorine turns Ihem 
yellow, but the fumes of sulphur unites with the color- 
ing matter and forms a colorless compound ; its action 
is, therefore, very different from that of chlorine. When 
white flannels that have been bleached with sulphur are 
washed in strong soap suds, they turn yellow, because 
the alkali of the soap unites with the sulphuric oxide 
used in bleaching the flannel, and thus sets free the 
original color. If sulphur is burned in a barrel before 
filling it with new cider, it will prevent fermentation. 

Sulphur will unite with almost all the metals, form- 
ing a sulphate of the metal. It has a great affinity for 
metallic silver, and will unite with it even in its solid 
state. It will unite with iron while in the molten state 
and cause the iron to be both hard and brittle. 



PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorus is a very light, flexible substance, soft 
enough to be spread with a knife. It burns at all tem- 
peratures above SS^F., and emits a feeble light ; it 
melts at llO^F. It should be handled with the utmost 
care, and always cut and kept under water, except 
when wanted for use. It is a deadly poison, and its 
vapor produces horrible ulcerations on the bodies and 
bones of the workmen who use it. Its burns are deep 
and dangerous ; even its vapor from matches should be 
avoided. Phosphorus glows in the dark as if it were 
on fire. It was called the son of Satan by the old 
alcl^emists. 

Phosphorus exists in small quantities in fish, in shells, 



MINERALS AND GASES. 231 

bones and rocks. It is so necessary to the operation of 
the brain, that it is said : "No phosphorus, no brains." 
We obtain our entire supply of phosphorus from the 
bones of animals, by a process of distillation with car- 
bon, and condense it under water. It is principally 
used in the manufacture of matches ; it is also a little 
used in forming alloys with metals, and to form solu- 
tions for plati g metals by the electrotype processes. 
It is found in combination with iron, in iron ore, and it 
will injure iron more, and is harder to remove from it, 
than any other substance. 



PETROLEUM. 

Petroleum oil is obtained from the petra rock, a soft, 
sandy rock beneath the surface of the earth. This oil 
is probably the product of the distillation of organic 
matter which has been deposited at some time beneath 
the present surface. It is principally found beneath 
the coal-measures, and some little has been found out- 
side the coal-measures ; but these are generally very 
small deposits, and the supply of oil soon gives out. 
The distillation of this oil from the organic matter 
must take place at a much greater depth than that at 
which the oil is now found, for it would naturally rise 
through the fissures of the rocks and gather in the 
crevices or pockets of the rocks above where it was 
formed, and where the rocks were very soft, or where 
there was large fissures in or between them the oil 
came up through to the surface of the earth and col- 
lected upon the surface of springs and pools of water ; 
and in this way it was first discovered in the western 
part of Pennsylvania, along the Alleghany river above 
Pittsburg. Wells were then put down, and large 
quantities of oil were found at a depth of fifty feet, and 
in some cases less than fifty feet. The supply of oil in 



232 3IINERALS AND GASES. 

these wells was soon exhausted, and new wells were 
put down along the oil belt, which is a belt about twa 
miles wide running down toward Pittsburg, and in 
this belt all the oil is found. The oil territory in West 
Virginia, below Pittsburg, is supposed to be a contin- 
uation of this belt, which probably dips below the Ohio 
river and rises again near Petroleum, West Virginia. 
The oil first obtained on this belt near Oil City was at 
a depth of fifty feet ; but the oil belt runs deeper as it 
gets near Pittsburg, and it has been followed down, 
and at the present time there is very little oil obtained 
at a less depth than twelve or fourteen hundred feet. 
This oil, when first pumped, is of a black, greasy color, 
and is generally accompanied with salt water. The 
crude oil from the well is purified by distillation by 
heat. That which is evaporated and passes over into 
the crevices at the lowest temperature is called naphtha,, 
or benzole, and as the heat is increased there passes off* 
next the kerosene oil, which we burn in our lamps for 
illuminating, and lastly, lubricating oil. The kerosene 
is next deodorized and decolorized by the use of sul- 
phuric acid and other chemicals which are stirred in 
the oil, after which it is redistilled and comes out pure 
and colorless as we buy it for use in our lamps. This 
oil, when pure and entirely free from naphtha or benzole,, 
is no more explosive than water ; but when united wdth 
naphtha or benzole, it forms an explosive and dangerous 
compound. I have tried to use this oil in a cupola for 
softening iron, and as a flux and fuel. With this view 
I first introduced it at the tuyeres without any blasts 
This proved a failure. The oil made a big blaze, but 
seemed to deaden the coke and put out the fire. I 
next tried oil and super-heated steam together, but this 
was worse than the oil alone, and would put out the fire 
altogether in a short time. I then tried steam and oil 
with a blast. This worked better, but was no better 
than the blast without the oil and steam. I then tried 



MINERALS AND GASES. 233 

the oil and blast together, but found that nothing was 
gained by using the oil in any way, or in either large 
or small quantities. 



BORON. 

Boron is found in nature in combination with oxygen 
as boracic acid. It is abundantly found in volcanic 
regions. Small lakes of it are found in Thibet, and 
also in California. Boron is the source from which we 
obtain our supply of borax. This is obtained by boil- 
ing and evaporating the boracic acid in lead pans heated 
by steam, when the water is evaporated and the borax 
collected. 



IODINE. 

Iodine is made from the ashes of sea-weed, and is 
found in sea- water and in sonje mineral springs. It is 
named from its beautiful, violet-colored vapor. It is 
much used in medicine. 



CHLORINE. 

Chlorine is named fra.n its green color. It has a 
peculiarly disagreeable odor. It is chiefly found in 
salt, of which it forms sixty per cent. Its gas produces 
a suffocating cough which can be relieved "by breathing 
ammonia or ether. Chlorine has such a powerful affin- 
ity for hydrogen, that it will even attract it out of moist 
organic bodies. It is used for bleaching muslins, linen, 
paper-rags, etc. It is a powerful disinfectant, and is 
used in sick rooms and hospitals where persons have 
died of contagious diseases. It is also combined with 
other materials, forming acids, etc. 



234 MINERALS AND GASES. 



BROMINE. 

Bromine is a deep-red liquid with the general prap- 
erties of chlorine. It has a very bad odor, and its gas 
is a rank poison. It is found in sea- water. It is prin- 
cipally used in photography and medicine. 



FLUORINE. 

Fluorine is the only element that has no affinity for 
oxygen. It is found in fluor-spar rock. It unites with 
hydrogen, forming hydro-fluoric acid, noted for its cor- 
rosive action on glass. 



SALT. 



Salt is a mineral that is found in a solid form, as rock 
salt, and in solution with water in the ocean and brine 
springs or wells. Rock salt is found in diff'erent parts 
of the Union, and is principally used for salting fish, 
corned beef, pork, etc., in barrels. The principal source 
from which we obtain our supply of salt, for general 
use, is by evaporating sea-water or the salt brine from 
springs or wells. Natural salt-water springs are found 
in the State of New York, and there is an extensive 
lake of very strong brine in Utah Territory. Salt is 
manufactured in the Eastern States principally from 
sea-water and brine springs, and in the Western States 
from brine obtained from artesian wells. Large amounts 
of salt are manufactured from these wells along the 
Ohio river and other rivers that flow into it. There are 
some very extensive salt w^orks at Pomeroy and Middle- 
port, on the Ohio river, that furnish large quantities of 
salt for the Southern market. Salt is a substance that 



MINERALS AND GASES. 235 

is absolutely necessary to sustain human life and the 
lives of the higher orders of animals. It does not seem 
to enter into the composition of our flesh, but assists in 
the digestion of our food. One of the most severe and 
cruel punishments inflicted upon criminals in China is 
to deprive them of salt. This causes, at first, a most 
indescribable longing and anxiety, and finally a painful 
death. 



OXYG-ElSr. 

Oxygen is the most abundant of all the elements. 
It comprises by weight one-fifth of the air, eight-ninths 
of the water, three-fourths of all animal bodies, and 
about one-half of the crust of the earth. It has no odor, 
color or taste. It is a vigorous supporter of combustion. 
Its union with substance is called oxidation, and the 
product an oxide. It combines with every element 
except fluorine. From some of its compounds it can 
be set free by the stroke of a hammer, while from others 
it can be liberated only by the most powerful means. 
Oxygen is the principal destructive agent of the atmos- 
phere, as it comprises one-fifth of the common air, it is 
ever present and waiting. Fruit and vegetables 
wither and rot, and we say that they are decaying, 
but it is only the oxygen corroding them and breaking 
up their chemical structure and forming new and un- 
pleasant compounds. If we cut or bruise our flesh, we 
soon feel the destructive action of the oxygen at work 
upon the quivering nerves, and we apply a strip of 
court-plaster or bind it up with a rag to prevent the 
action of the oxygen upon it, and give nature an oppor- 
tunity to heal the wound. An animal dies, and the 
oxygen at once begins to remove the body. If we wish 
to preserve the body, we exclude the air from it or 
cover it with salt to prevent the corrosive action of the 



236 MINERALS AND GASES. 

oxygen upon it. Our teeth decay because of the action 
of the oxygen upon them, and the dentist saves them 
by filling any break in the enamel with a cement which 
has very little affinity for oxygen, or with gold, or 
platinum. The water in our cisterns becomes foul and 
putrid, and we uncover it and the oxygen rushes in 
and picks lip each atom of impurity and sinks to the 
bottom ; and the thick sediment we find at the bottom 
of our cisterns and rain-barrels, is but the ashes of com- 
bustion of these impurities caused by union with 
oxygen. We take air into our lungs; here the blood 
absorbes the oxygen from it and bears it to all parts of 
the body, depositing it wherever it is needed. Ladened 
with this life-giving element, the vital fluid sweeps 
tingling through every artery and vein, combines with 
a portion of the food thrown into the circulation from 
the stomach, breaks up every worn-out tissue, burns up 
the muscles and sets free their force until at last it 
comes back through the veins dark and thick with the 
products of the combustion. The cinders of the fire 
within us, the human body, is like a furnace in which 
fuel is burnt, and the chemical action is precisely like 
that in any other furnace, for we take food into our 
stomach and the air or oxygen into our lungs, and the 
union of the oxygen with the food in the stomach forms 
a combustion and produces heat, and our bodies are 
kept warm by the constant fire within us. When there 
is plenty of food in our stomach, the oxygen burns that, 
but if there is no food in our stomach the destructive 
oxygen must still unite with something, and so it com- 
bines with the flesh and it first burns up the fat and 
we grow poor, then the muscles, and we grow weak, 
next the brain, and we become crazed, and in this way 
we are burnt up as a candle burns out to the darkness, 
hence we see why we fire up our human furnace with 
three square meals a day. All the muscles of our body 
are burnt up in about eighty days of ordinary labor. 



MINERALS AND GASES. 237 

Our heart works day and night, and it is burnt out in 
about forty days, so that we have a new set of muscles 
every eighty days, and a new heart every forty days. 
If the stomach is supplied with food, our muscles and 
heart is replaced as fast as they are burnt up, but if no 
food is supplied, the oxygen burns up the muscles and 
the heart, and we die. Thus the destructive oxygen 
wastes us away constantly from birth to death, and yet 
it is essential to our existence. Why is this ? simply 
because we live only as we die, and the moment we 
cease dying we cease living. We can perform no labor 
except by the wearing away of the muscles ; no thought 
can be evolved except by the wearing away of the 
brain, hence we see the necessity for food to supply 
the constant wearing away of the system, and for sleep 
to give nature time to repair the losses of the day. 
We lay down at night feeling tired and exhausted, and 
arise in the morning feeling refreshed. This is simply 
because nature has repaired the losses of the muscles 
while we slept. Nature has no idlers in this world, 
each atom has its use. Oxygen, so destructive in its 
action, is essential, that every waste compound may be 
broken up and its components returned to the common 
stock for use in forming new compounds. In perform- 
ing this general task its uses are most important and 
necessary, for were it not for oxygen, nothing in nature 
would decay. The earth, would be strewed with dead 
bodies of animals and vegetable matter. To avoid this, 
nature has provided oxygen as the common scavenger, 
and it is ever present in every dark cellar, every dark 
street and alley, and in every part of the world ready 
to remove by decay every waste substance upon the 
face of the earth. A leaf falls, and the oxygen forth- 
with commences its destruction ; a pile of rubbish, the 
dead body of an animal, decayed vegetables, etc., are 
all removed by the destructive oxygen. 



238 ■ MINERALS AND GASES. 



HYDROG-EN. 

Hydrogen is not so abundant as some of the other 
elements; it is chiefly found in water, of which it forms 
one-ninth part, by weight. This gas may be obtained 
from water by dropping small pieces of zinc into a bottle 
partly filled with sulphuric acid, diluted with water, 
as in forming muriate of zinc for soldering; but in this 
case the mouth of the bottle is closed with a cork, and 
the gas collected through a small tube. The hydrogen 
prepared in this manner has a disagreeable odor, which 
is caused by the impurities in the zinc used ; but this 
gas when pure is like oxygen, colorless, transparent 
and odorless. It has more diffusive power than any of 
the other elements, and in attempts made to liquify 
the gas, by compression, it leaked through the pores of 
a thick iron cylinder in which it was compressed. It 
is not poisonous, yet it will destroy life, or combustion, 
by shutting out the life sustainer, oxygen. Hydrogen 
is the lightest of all the gases, being only one-four- 
teenth as heavy as common air, and for this reason it 
has been used for filling balloons, but as coal gas is 
also very light, and can be obtained much cheaper than 
hydrogen, and for filling balloons it has generally 
taken the place of hydrogen, yet the small rubber toy 
balloons are all filled with diluted hydrogen. 

If we put a lighted candle into a jar of hydrogen 
the candle will be extinguished and the gas will take 
fire and burn with a feeble flame. One atom of the 
oxygen of the air unites with two atoms of hydrogen, 
and the product of the combustion is water; if the 
oxygen is supplied rapidly the flame will be stronger. 
Hydrogen in itself is not explosive, but if two parts, 
by measure, is mixed with five parts of common air 
it will explode violently when ignited, and when 
making this gas, or when making muriate of zinc for 



MINERALS AND GASES. 239 

soldering, care should be taken to keep fire away from 
it, for the gas may take fire and run down into the 
bottle and explode it. A hydrogen flame gives little 
light but great heat, and when united with oxygen, 
according to its chemical affinity, it possesses great 
force when set free. 



NITROG-EN. 

Nitrogen is a very abundant element ; it forms four- 
fifths of the atmosphere, and is the principal element 
in ammonia, nitric acid, flesh, and in such vegetables 
as the mushroom, cabbage, horse-radish, etc., it consti- 
tutes the principal part of many valuable medicines, 
such as quinine, morphine, and also of the potent 
poisons, prussic acid and strychnine. Nitrogen in its 
pure state will neither burn nor permit anything else 
to burn ; a candle will not burn in it, and a person can- 
not breathe it alone and live, yet when united with one- 
fifth oxygen it is both a supporter of combustion and 
life. Thus in these two elements we have the two 
most important elements of the world, and without 
either of them we could not exist, for nitrogen alone is 
sluggish, and when undiluted we could not exist in it 
a moment, and pure oxygen is too active. If the air 
was undiluted oxygen wr would be excited to a pitch 
of which we can scarcely dream, and we would sweep 
through life's feverish burning course in a few days, 
and the world would be swept with a fierce confla- 
gration. Thus we see that separately either of these 
elements, that constitute the air, would kill us, oxygen 
by its radical action and nitrogen by lack of action. 

Nitrogen has only but very little affinity for any other 
elements, and although it will unite with many of them, 
yet the instability of its compounds is very curious. For 
instance, it will unite with iodine, but a heavy step on 



240 MINERALS AND GASES. 

the floor, or a stroke of a hammer, will set it free. 
Four-fifths of the air we breathe is nitrogen, and one- 
fifth is oxygen. One-fifth of our flesh is nitrogen, yet 
none of it comes from the air w^e breathe, for the nitro- 
gen comes out of our lungs the same as it went in, but 
a portion of the oxygen contained in the air remains in 
our bodies and performs the wonderful work of digest- 
ing our food, stimulating and giving us life. The nitro- 
gen contained in our flesh is obtained from the lean 
meat and vegetables we eat. Plants breathe the air 
through the leaves — their lungs — yet they do not ap- 
propriate any of the nitrogen contained in the air, in 
this way, but obtain their supply from the ammonia 
and nitric acid which their roots absorb from the soil ; 
and from these plants, animals and mankind receive 
their entire supply of nitrogen in the flesh ; but even 
after obtaining it in this way, we hold it very loosely, 
and the tendency of our flesh to decompose is largely 
owing to the instability of the nitrogen it contains. 
Nitrogen enters our fires with oxygen, the oxygen 
unites with the fuel and supports combustion, but the 
nitrogen, having no chemical affinity for the fuel, passes 
through the fire and out of the chimney. Even in a 
furnace, where iron melts instantly like w^ax, nitrogen 
is not consumed, but conies forth as pure and unaltered 
as when it entered. It is so sluggish and dull that it 
will not unite directly with any organic substance, and 
even the most intense heat of the furnace will not make 
it more active. 

Nitrogen is too inert for our use, and oxygen is too 
active ; yet, by combining them as in nature, w^e have 
the golden mean — the oxygen quickens the nitrogen, 
and the nitrogen retards the oxygen, and it quietly 
unites with the fuel in our stoves and gives us heat, — 
with the oil in our lamps, and gives us light. It cor- 
rodes our bodies and gives us strength ; cleanses the 
air and keeps it fresh and invigorating. It works all 



MIXER A LS AND GASES. 241 

around us, and even within us, yet with such delicacy 
and quietness that we never notice it or think of it, 
unless we see it with the eye of science. 

The chief compound of nitrogen is nitric acid. This 
acid is found in nature combined with sodium or potas- 
sium, and it is formed in the atmosphere in small quan- 
tities by electricity in time of thunder storm, and is 
washed to the earth by the rain, and absorbed by the 
. roots of vegetables and plants. 

Nitric acid is colorless, and as clear as water when 
pure, but as sold in our drug stores it commonly has a 
golden tint, caused by the presence of a lower oxide of 
nitrogen produced by the decomposing action of the 
light. It is a very corrosive and poisonous liquid, and 
was formerly called aqua-fortis, or strong water. Its 
strength is next to sulphuric acid. It stains wood or the 
skin a bright yellow. It has been obtained in brilliant, 
transparent crystals, but they soon decompose from the 
action of the air. This acid gives up its oxygen readily, 
and is a powerful oxidizing agent. 

Nitric acid is chiefly employed in dying wool yellow, 
and' by surgeons for burning the proud flesh in old 
sores. It dissolves all of the metals except platinum 
and its kindred metals, and when combined with chloric 
acid it forms the usual solvent of gold. It is used for 
etching the beautiful designs seen on the blades of 
swords, razors, etc. The process of doing this is very 
simple. The surface of the blade is first covered with 
a varnish that resists the action of the acid upon it ; 
the desired figure is then sketched in the varnish with 
a very fine-pointed tool ; the acid is then poured on, 
and it oxidizes the metal in the delicate lines thus laid 
bare. 

Nitrous oxide is one of the gases of nitrogen. It is 

a colorless, transparent gas, with a faintly-sweetish 

taste and smell. It is a supporter of combustion as 

well as oxygen. If breathed for a short time, it pro- 

16 



242 MINERALS AND GASES. 

duces a peculiar kind of intoxication and laughter, and 
for this it is often called laughing-gas ; but the effect 
soon passes off. If taken for a long time its effect is 
similar to ether or laudanum, and causes insensibility ; 
and it is much used for surgical and dental operations. 
Nitric oxide is another gas of nitrogen. It is a col- 
orless gas, and has a very disagreeable odor and a great 
affinity for oxygen. The ammonia, or hartshorn-gas, 
is also one of the nitrogen gases. This gas is prepared 
by heating sal-ammoniac with lime in a retort, and 
collecting the gas. Water heated to 60° Fahrenheit 
will absorb seven hundred times its own bulk of this 
gas ; and this compound constitutes the common harts- 
horn solution sold in drug-stores. The solution, when 
as strong as this, will produce a blister, and must there- 
fore be very much reduced with water before being 
tasted or touched to the skin. It is a strong alkali. 
Ammonia receives its name from the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, near which sal-ammoniac, one of its com- 
pounds, was once manufactured ; and it receives the 
name hartshorn from being at one time made in Eng- 
land from the horns of the hart, a wild animal. 



CARBON. 

Carbon is one of the most abundant elements in na- 
ture. It composes nearly one-half of the entire vegeta- 
ble kingdom, and it forms a prominent constituent of 
coral marble lime-stone and of most all the rocks. It 
exists in three distinct forms, viz.: the diamond graph- 
ite and amorphous carbon. 

The graphite carbon is also called kish and black- 
lead, because on paper it makes a shining mark like 
lead. The graphite is supposed to be of vegetable 
origin. It is found native in almost all the States of the 
Union, and in large quantities in New York, Vermont 



IIINERALS AND GASES. 243 

and Massachusetts. It is chiefly used in the manufac- 
ture of lead-pencils. For this purpose an alloy is made 
of graphite, antimony and sulphur. The proportion of 
each ingredient determines the hardness of the pencil. 
This alloy is melted and cast into blocks, which are 
sawed into thin slips, as seen in the common lead-pen- 
cils. The hard and gritty specks that we sometimes 
find in pencils are caused by the antimony not being 
thoroughly mixed with the graphite and sulphur. For 
drawing-pencils, and all the best pen'cils, this alloy is 
not used ; but they are made of pure graphite, which 
is powdered and subjected to such enormous pressure 
that the particles are brought near enough together to 
form a solid mass, when the pressure is removed. This 
block is then sawed into small strips, which are fitted 
into cylinders of cedar- wood. G-raphite is also used as 
British lustre, carboret of iron, stove-polish, etc., which 
are employed for blacking stoves and protecting iron 
from rusting. It is also used for mixing with clay to 
make black-lead crucibles, which are the most refrac- 
tory crucibles known. Gas-carbon is found in the inte- 
rior of the retorts used for making gas from bituminous 
coal. It has a metallic lustre, and is so hard as to 
scratch glass. It is sometimes used in cupolas as a 
fuel and flux in the melting of iron, and is said to 
make iron more fluid and hold its life longer. 

Charcoal carbon is mad^ by burning wood in a retort 
or oven, or in piles so covered over with turf as to pre- 
vent free access of air. The volatile gases, water, etc., 
are driven off', and the carbon left behind. The char- 
coal thus made will form about three-fourths of the 
bulk of the wood, and one-fourth of its weight. Char- 
coal for gunpowder and for medicinal purposes is made 
from willow or poplar wood, and the best charcoal for 
common use is made from maple wood. 

Charcoal is the most unchangeable of all the elements, 
so that even in the charcoal we can trace all the deli- 



244 MINERALS AND GASES. 

cate structure of the wood from which it was made. It 
is insoluble in any ordinary liquid ; no alkali will eat it, 
and none of the acids, except nitric acid, corrode it ; 
neither air nor moisture affect it. Wheat has been found 
in the ruins of Herculaneum that was charred 1800 
years ago, and yet the kernels are as perfect as if 
grown last harvest. The ground ends of posts are ren- 
dered more durable by charring. Some charred posts 
were dug up not long since in the bed of the river 
Thames, which were placed there by the ancient Britons 
to oppose the passage of Julius Caesar and his army. A 
cubic inch of fine charcoal is so full of minute pores 
that it is said to have one hundred feet of surface. 
These small pores absorb gases by capillary attraction 
to an almost incredible extent. One inch of charcoal 
will take up ninety times its bulk of ammonia. Foul 
water filtered through charcoal loses its impurities ; and 
beer, by filtering through charcoal, parts not only with 
its color, but with its bitter taste, and comes out clear 
and transparent as water. Pans of burning charcoal 
soon purify and sweeten the offensive air of a hospital, 
and the fumes of charcoal will cause death in a close 
room. 

Animal charcoal or bone-black, is made by charring 
bones in closed retorts. It is largely used by sugar re- 
finers for filtering brown sugar, to make white or loaf 
sugar. In doing this, the brown sugar is dissolved in 
water, and filtered through twilled cotton to remove the 
coarse impurities, and then through a deep layer of 
bone-black, and all the impurities are removed ; it 
comes out a colorless solution, and is next evaporated in 
vacuum pans in which it is boiled at so low a tempera- 
ture as to avoid all danger of burning it. When suffi- 
ciently concentrated, the liquid is removed, and set 
aside to drain and crystallize, and the drainings consti- 
tute syrup or sugar-house molasses, and the crystals 
constitute loaf or granulated sugar. Common vinegar 



MINERALS AND GASES. 245 

filtered through bone-black, becomes the white vinegar 
used by pickle manufacturers. Bone-black is also used 
for blacking, mixed with hydrate-sulphuric acid and 
oil, it forms the basis of all shoe blacking. 

Diamonds are said to be pure carbon, crystallized ; 
they are the hardest of all known substances, and will 
scratch all other minerals and gems, and can be cut only 
by their own dust. They are infusible, but will burn 
at a high rate of temperature. Diamonds are found in 
Southern Africa, Brazil, Borneo, and some few have 
been found in Georgia and North Carolina, but our 
principal supply of diamonds come from Brazil. It is 
said that this country, in 1858, furnished 125,000 carats 
of diamonds. The weight of a carat is equal to four 
grains of Troy weight. The term carat is derived from 
the name of a bean, which, when dried, was formerly used 
by the diamond merchants \\\ India for Aveighing dia- 
monds. Diamonds are usually found in semi-transpar- 
ent round pebbles enclosed in a thin brownish opaque 
crust, which, when broken, reveals the brilliant gem 
within. They are of various tints, though often color- 
less and perfectly transparent. The colorless diamonds 
are the most valuable, and from their resemblance to a 
drop of clear spring water, they are called diamonds of 
the first water. Diamonds are exceedingly brittle, and 
valuable gems have been broken by simply falling on 
the floor. Although the diamond is simply pure car- 
bon, yet it has never been made by any chemical pro- 
cess. Nothing definite is known concerning the orig- 
inal formation of the diamond. Paste diamonds are 
now made in Europe, which are so perfect an imitation 
of the real diamond, that only experts can distinguish 
them. Diamonds are ground and polished by means 
of their own powder ; the gem to be polished is fitted 
to the end of a stick or handle, and is pressed down 
firmly against the face of a rapidly revolving wheel 
covered with diamond powder and oil, this, by its 



246 MINERALS AND GASES. 

friction, gradually grinds off the exposed edge, and 
forms what is termed a facet of the gem. The diamond 
is not only used for ornaments, but it is also used for 
many mechanical uses, such as cutting glass, rock-drills, 
etc. 

The amorphous carbon, or carbon having no deter- 
minate form, is far more abundant than either the 
graphite or diamond forms of carbon ; it comprises 
soot, lampblack, charcoals, mineral coal, coke, peat, 
muck, and all the various carbonic gasses, etc. 

Soot is unburnt carbon which passes off from a can- 
dle or fire, when there is not enough oxygen present to 
combine with all the carbon of the fuel, and form a 
perfect combustion, the carbon therefore comes away in 
flakes, and passes off in the air or lodges in the chim- 
ney of the house. Much more soot will be deposited 
in the chimney when green wood or bituminous coal is 
used for fuel, than when hard coal or coke is used, for 
the moisture in the wood absorbs much of the heat of 
the fire, and the carbon in the bituminous coal is more 
volatile and easily set free than in the hard coal or coke, 
and it is permitted to pass off unconsumed. The flakes 
of unconsumed carbon or soot often collect in the chim- 
ney, and after a large quantity has collected, it catches 
fire, and burns out with a great roar and flame. 

Lampblack is made by imperfectly burning pitch or 
tar ; this creates a dense cloud of smoke, which is con- 
ducted into a room lined with sacking, where it con- 
denses, and the soot or lampblack collects on the sack- 
ing. Lampblack is largely used in the manufacture of 
paints ; it is mixed with clay to form black drawing 
crayons. It has peculiar properties which fit it for 
printers' ink, nothing in nature could supply its place 
for this purpose. No matter how finely it is pulverized, 
it retains its dead black color, the minutest particle is 
as black as the largest mass ; it is insoluble in all 
liquids ; it never decays ; the paper may decay or we 



MINERALS AND GASES. 247 

may even barn it, and yet, in its ashes, we can trace 
the form of the printed letters. The ancients used an 
ink said to be composed of gum- water and lampblack, 
and manuscripts have been exhumed from the ruins of 
Herculaneum, which are perfectly legible. The print- 
ers' ink in use at the present time is composed of lamp- 
black and linseed oil. 

Carbon constitutes the principal part of all mineral 
coals, these coals were formed at an early period of the 
world's history, called the Carboniferous Age. In this 
age the earth was pervaded by a genial tropical climate, 
the air was more dense and rich with vegetable food 
than now; the earth itself was a swamp, moist and hot, 
in which simple ferns towered into large trees, and the 
plants, like those we trample under foot to-day, grew ' 
to the height of lofty trees ; in these swamps accumu- 
lated a vast deposit of leaves and fallen trunks, which, 
under the water, gradually changed to charcoal. In 
the course of time the earth settled at various points, 
and floods poured in from the seas, bringing with them 
sand, pebbles and clay, filling up the depression. ' The 
pressure of these deposits, together with the internal 
heat of the earth, expelled the gases from the vegetable 
deposits and converted them into mineral coal. Where 
the pressure was great the hard or anthracite coal was 
formed, and where the pressure was light the soft or 
bituminous coal was formed, and where there was little 
or no pressure, or where it was not flooded by the 
sea, there vegetable deposits were converted into peat 
or muck. In some parts of the world these deposits or 
beds of peat are of vast extent — one-tenth of Ireland is 
■covered by them. 

Coke is made from bituminous coal by heating it in 
retorts or ovens and burning off" the tar, water and . 
volatile gases ; after these impurities have been burnt 
away the fire is put out so as to retain the carbon in the 
coke. Coke is much used in the manufacture and 



248 MIXER A LS AND GASES. 

working of iron, and also for fuel for locomotives, 
engines, stoves, blacksmiths' forges, etc. 

Carbon is found in a great many contrary forms ; it 
is soft enough for the pencil, and hard enough to cut 
glass ; clear and brilliant it gleams and flashes in the 
diadem of a king ; black and opaque, it expresses 
thoughts on the printed page. In graphite it resists the 
fiercest heat ; in lampblack it will take fire spontane- 
ously ; as oil we burnit in our lamps and it gives us 
light; as coal or wood we burn it in our stoves and it 
gives us heat ; we burn it in our locomotives and it 
gives us power ; as coal or wood it readily unites with 
oxygen and gives us heat ; as graphite we spread as 
stove polish on our iron -ware to prevent the corrosive 
action of the oxygen upon the iron; it constitutes the 
valuable element of coal, wood and all burning oils or 
gases. Carbon thus supplies our wants in a great 
many different ways. 

The carbonic gases are almost as abundant as the 
carbonic solids. These gases are all known under the 
general name of carbonic oxides or carbonic acid gas, 
yet the proportions they contain of the different ele- 
ments make a great difference in the nature of the 
gas. This gas is found abundantly in a large number 
of carbonates, such as limestone, marble, etc., and it 
forms nearly one-half of their weight, and almost one- 
seventh of the earth's crust. This gas is formed in the 
air, by the air being breathed into our lungs, and by 
burning carbon in our stoves, by light, decay, fermenta- 
tion and all the various forms of combustion, and it is 
taken from the air by plants, vegetables, trees, etc., 
which breathe the air into the leaves (their lungs), and 
retain the carbonic acid to build up their structure and 
set free 'the pure oxygen, in this way the air is purified 
of this dangerous gas, were it not for these plants the 
air would become so full of it that we could not live in 
it, for three per cent, of this gas in the air acts as a 



MINERALS AND GASES. 249 

poison by putting us to sleep and preventing the proper 
action of the oxygen upon our blood. Air of this pro- 
portion of oxygen and carbonic acid will sometimes be 
formed or accumulate in old wells, cellars, mines, etc., 
where many incautious persons have lost their lives by 
it. Cellars that contain this gas can generally be puri- 
fied by ventilation, and it can be driven out of deep 
Avells or mines by a blast of fresh air or by lowering 
pans of slacked lime or burning coals into them. 
iShallow wells may be purified by throwing a bundle 
of burning straw into them. 

This gas is abundantly formed by burning charcoal, 
and if burned in an open furnace, in a closed room, it 
will cause death by putting us into a sleep from which 
we never awake. In France it is not unusual to commit 
suicide by burning a pan of charcoal in a closed room. 
If persons who attempt suicide in this way are found 
before life is extinct, they may be revived by bringing 
them into the fresh air and dashing cold water upon 
their face. 

This dangerous gas is formed in deep mines by the 
burning of fire-damp, a colorless, odorless gas, which is 
formed in low, marshy ground and in coal mines. 
When controlled it burns with a yellowish flame, but 
when burnt uncontrolled it explodes like gunpowder, 
forming dense volumes of carbonic acid gas, which is 
called by the miners, cho'k& damp. Both of these gases 
are dreaded by the miners, the fire-damp from its 
explosive nature, and the choke-damp from its suffocat- 
ing nature. Either of these gases will destroy life. 
As carbonic acid gas is formed by breathing air into our 
lungs, the proper ventilation of our dwellings is a matter. 
of great importance, that we may not have to breathe 
the same air over again. The languor and sleepiness 
we feel when in a crowded assembly is caused by the 
re-breathing of air ; the idea of drinking in, at every 
breath, air that perhaps has just left the lungs of an- 



250 MINERALS AND GASES, 

other person, is most disgusting. We shun impurity 
in every form, we dislike to wear the clothes of another, 
or to eat from the same plate, and yet we crowd into 
theatres and halls with them and inhale their pointed 
breath. 

Carbonic oxide gas is formed by burning fuels in our 
stoves or oil in our lamps; it is a colorless gas, with very 
little odor or smell, and burns with a pale blue flame ; 
combined with oxygen it forms carbonic acid gas. 
Carbonic oxide gas is a deadly poison, and escaping 
from coal-fires in a close room, has often produced 
death. The anthracite coal will form more of this gas 
than any other fuel, and when burned in sleeping 
rooms, care should always be taken to have the rooms 
well ventilated. The carbonic oxide gas is similar to 
the flre-damp of the coal mines. 

Coal gas is a carbonic gas made from bituminous coal, 
by heating it in iron or clay retorts and collecting the 
gas, which is then passed through coils of pipe to con- 
dense it and separate the tar, and is next passed 
through a coil of pipe to cool it, and through water 
and slacked lime to purify it; it then passes into the 
receiver for use. This gas is the most valuable of the 
carbonic gases ; it is largely used for illuminating pur- 
poses, as well as for heating purposes^. This gas is 
used by most all of our large steel works for melting 
and heating the steel, for this purpose it is more 
economical than coal or coke, and can be used to better 
advantage. Coal gas has a very bad smell, and is 
veuy poisonous when inhaled into the lungs. 



ATMOSPHERE. 

The atmosphere, or air we breathe, is composed of 
four-fifths of nitrogen, one-fifth of oxygen, and a very 
small amount of carbonic acid gas. This latter is not 



MINERALS AND GASES. 251 

naturally in the air, but is formed in our lungs as we 
breathe the pure air, and if were shut up in a close 
room, with no supply of fresh air, we would so convert 
all the air in the room into carbonic acid gas by breath- 
ing, that we could not live in it. The carbonic acid of 
the air is heavier than common air, and when thrown 
into the air in large quantities, it sinks to the bottom, 
and for this reason we raise our beds from the floor, so 
that we may be in the purer air ; but when the amount 
of carbonic acid is small, or when we open the door or 
window of our bed-rooms in the morning, the purer air 
rushes in and unites with the heavy carbonic acid, ac- 
cording to the law of the diffusion of gases, so that the 
air near the floor becomes as pure as that near the ceil- 
ing. By this law of diffusion the air becomes the same 
everywhere. Samples of it have been analyzed from 
every conceivable place — from polar and torrid regions, 
from prairies and mountain tops — and the result is 
almost exactly the same everywhere ; yet when the air 
is confined to close rooms, mines, etc., it unites with the 
impurities with which it comes in contact, and forms 
disagreeable and often dangerous compounds, such as 
fire-damp, choke-damp, etc. But all these dangerous 
compounds disappear when a plentiful supply of air is 
admitted into the mines, for they soon unite with the 
pure air, according to the law of diff'usion of gases, and 
the impurities causing the firp-damp or choke-damp are 
thrown out of the compound. The gases of the air do 
not form a chemical compound, but a mere mechanical 
mixture, and for this reason they readily unite with 
other substances, forming these dangerous compounds ; 
and for the same reason they are readily thrown out of 
the compound when diff'used through a larger amount 
of air. Were the gases of the air to unite chemically, 
an^ the substances which constitute its impurities to 
unite chemically, it would not be so easily purified of 
its impurities, but would grow more and more impure, 



252 MINERALS AND GASES. 

until we could not breathe it and live. The gases of 
the air are distinct and separate, as so many grains of 
corn and wheat mingled in a measure, and each of 
these gases has its separate use and mission. The use 
of this oxygen is to quicken the nitrogen and make it 
more active, and the use of the nitrogen is to retard the 
oxygen and make it less active, so that we may have it 
under control for our use, as shown under the head of 
Oxygen. 

The carbonic acid of the air bears the same relation 
to vegetables ttiat oxygen does to animal life. The leaf 
of the plant is the lungs of the plant. Through its mil- 
lions of little pores or mouths, it drinks in the air, 
which again escapes, leaving part of the carbonic acid 
behind, the same as when we breathe the air into our 
lungs, it again escapes, leaving part of its oxygen be- 
hind to quicken our blood into life and sustain the life 
within us. In the leaf of the plant the carbonic acid 
inhaled into it at night is decomposed in the daytime 
by the sunbeams, and the carbon applied to building 
up the plant, and the oxygen returned* to the air for 
our use. Plants thus breathe out oxygen as we breathe 
out carbonic acid. We furnish vegetables with air for 
their use, and they in turn supply us. There is thus a 
mutual dependence between the animal and the vege- 
table world. Each relies upon the other. Deprived of 
plants, we would soon exhaust the oxygen from the air, 
supply its place with carbonic acid, and die, while they, 
removed from the animal world, would soon exhaust the 
carbonic acid and die. We pollute the air, while they 
purify it by each tiny leaf and spire of grass, imbibing 
our foul breath and returning it to us pure and fresh. 
This interchange is so exactly balanced that the pro- 
portion of carbonic acid and of oxygen in the open air 
never varies. The vegetable or plant which contains 
the carbon thus rinsed from the atmosphere by the ac- 
tion of the sunbeam is also full of potential force, and 



MINERALS AND GASES. 253 

by its energy and action builds up the plant, and 
the force of the sunbeam becomes latent in the vege- 
table structure. The sun shining on our meadows 
causes the grass to grow. If the grass be eaten by 
an animal, the same amount of force will be liberated 
as it receives from the sun. Thus the grass represents, 
not alone so much carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, but 
also a certain amount of sun-force which gives the 
animal strength, for in the process of digestion the 
force stored in the grass is transferred to the animal, 
and gives it muscles, and produces motion, heat, etc. 
Thus by digestion the animal robs the grass or grain of 
its force and returns to the earth the hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen and carbon of its construction, to be again 
used in the formation of new compounds. As water is 
very abundant in the earth, so is it abundant in the 
air as vapor. Were the air perfectly dry, our flesh 
would become shriveled, all vegetable matter would 
wither ; the rivers and streams that flow to the ocean 
would be dried up, for all these are fed by the moisture 
in the air, which rises from the ocean and streams as 
vapor and falls upon the earth as rain, dew% snow^, or 
hail, and in this w^ay the vapor, or moisture of the at- 
mosphere supplies the earth with water. 



W A T''E R . 

The composition of water is proved by analysis, by 
separating the compound into its elements, and by 
uniting the elements to produce the water. Water is 
an extinguisher of combustion, yet when thrown on the 
hot coals in small amounts it is decomposed, and the 
hydrogen burns with a pale flame, while the oxygen 
unites with the fuel and increases the combustion. 
Thus in a fire : if the tire-engines throw on too little 
water, it may be decomposed and add to the fury of 



254 MINERALS AND GASES. 

the flames. Water thrown on a fire by means of hose 
is scattered into detached fragments, and is heated and 
decomposed by the flames before it reaches the fire, 
and for this reason it is less available for quenching a 
fire than water thrown directly on the fire by means of 
buckets. 

Water is a very abundant substance. It composes 
four-fifths of our flesh and blood, and of the flesh and 
blood of all animals, so that man has been said to be 
made of twelve pounds of solid matter, wet up with 
six pails of water. All plimipness of the flesh and fair- 
ness of the cheek is given by the water in our system, 
and a few ounces of water and a little carbon constitute 
the principal chemical diff'erence between the round, 
rosy face of sixteen, and the wrinkled face of sixty. 
To supply the constant demand of our system for water, 
each adult in active exercise needs about three pints 
per day, or over one-half a ton a year. In fish and 
water animals the supply of water is still more abund- 
ant. Some of our fish are little more than organized 
water. In an analysis made by Professor Agassiz, of a 
sunfish caught ofl" the coast of Massachusetts, which 
weighed thirty pounds, only one-half ounce of dried 
flesh was obtained, the balance of the fish being water. 

The lower order of fish, or those to which belong the 
jelly-fish, medusa, etc., are said to be composed of only 
ten parts in a thousand of solid matter. Water is also 
a very abundant substance in the vegetable world. 
Wood is composed of six parts of charcoal and forty parts 
of water, with a little mineral matter which comprises 
the ashes. Potatoes are composed of seventy-five parts 
of water ; turnips are ninety parts water ; carrots are 
eighty-three parts water; cabbages are ninety-two 
parts water ; cucumbers are ninety-seven parts water ; 
watermelons are ninety-eight parts water, and all other 
vegetables contain water in the same proportion. 

Mineral water is water that is or has been combined 



MINERALS AND GASES. 255 

with solid or mineral matter, and when combinQd it is 
chemically known as hydrates ; thus the images which 
the Italian makes from plaster of Paris are the hydrates 
of plaster of Paris, because they contain nearly one 
pound of water to every four pounds of plaster. One- 
third of the weight of all ordinary soil, clay, soft rocks, 
etc., are water, and most all water contains more or less 
mineral matter, and when it contains much mineral 
matter, the taste of the water is not generally agreeable, 
there being but a few kinds which taste well and pro- 
duce a pleasant sensation when drank. When water 
contains more mineral matter than is consistent to our 
sense of taste, it is called acidulated ^water. Water 
which is of a crystalline purity and has an agreeable 
and refreshing taste, generally contains pure carbonic 
acid gas. Water possessing the smell and taste of 
rotten eggs contains sulphur, and this peculiar smell is 
produced by sulphuretted hydrogen gas, generated 
from soluble metallic sulphurets. If the quantity of 
sulphuretted hydrogen is not too large the taste of this 
water is not repulsive, but the smell is decidedly so. 
Water of this description possesses remarkable medical 
properties, and springs or wells of it are famous as 
resorts for invalids. When water has a cool, refreshing 
taste, but has an additional earthy after-taste, it con- 
tains either sulphate of lime, gypsum or carbonate of 
lime. Dissolved limestone or magnesia causes water to 
have a bitter taste, resembling that of Epsom salt, which 
is not very unpleasant if the quantity of metal dissolved 
is not too large. Solutions of iron impart to water a 
taste like black ink, which is very disagreeable if there 
is much of it in the water. Potash and soda give water 
a very soft, sweetish taste, if contained in small quan- 
tities ; but when contained in large quantities it forms 
a strong alkali brine, which is bitter to the taste and 
very injurious. The salts of potash or soda appear 
chiefly as chlorides in mineral water, producing the 



256 MINERALS AND GASES. 

peculiar taste of common salt. When the sulphates of 
these metals are present in water, it has a bitter 
taste, very much resembling the magnesia water, but 
stronger and more repulsive. Some waters contain 
acids and clay in solution, which are thus held by the 
acids ; these waters are always of a milky-white color, 
and have a slightly sour taste. All acids contain more 
or less water ; strong nitric acid contains the most ; but 
if the water was removed it would destroy the acid 
itself. If we expel the water from sulphuric acid it 
will lose its acid properties, and we can handle it with- 
out injury to our flesh. If we evaporate the w^ater from 
blue vitriol, it will lose its color and become white like 
flour, and a few drops of w^ater will restore the blue 
color. If we expel the water from crystallized borax or 
alum by heating they will puff" up, and the transparent 
crystals will dry into a white incoherent mass ; and 
many other salts part with their water of crystallization 
when exposed to the air, and crumble into a powder. 

Pure water has no taste, color or snnell, and is per- 
fectly adapted to be the solvent of solids, for it becomes 
at pleasure sweet, sour, salt, bitter, nauseous and even 
poisonous. Rain water, caught after the air has been 
thoroughly cleansed by a thunder storm, or a long con- 
tinuous rain, is the purest natural water known ; it is 
tasteless, yet its want of taste makes it seem to us very 
ill-flavored, since w^e have become accustomed to the 
taste of mineral impurities in hard water, they have 
become to our taste sweetness and pleasantness. 

Saline waters are even more impregnated with for- 
eign matte»r than mineral water is ; they are very re- 
pulsive to the taste, and generally have a strong medi- 
cinal effect. Saline water may contain biit one ingredi- 
ent, or it may contain may different kinds of mineral 
matter, the latter is the most common. The saline 
waters are those which contain a considerable amount 
of chloride of sodium, as does sea-w^ater, and all the 



MINERALS AND GASES. 257 

brines from salt-wells or springs. Most of these brines 
also contain sulphates in lar^e amounts, which give the 
water a very bitter taste. Sea-water belongs to the 
saline waters ; the most abundant mineral in this water 
is common salt, yet it contains traces of every substance 
soluable in water, which has been washed into the sea from 
the surface of the earth during all the ages of the past. 
The proportion of these substances contained in the 
water are being daily increased, as the water which 
evaporates from the surface is comparatively pure, con- 
taining only a mere trace of a few of the lighter sub- 
stances ; this vapor is carried over the earth in clouds, 
and deposited upon it in the shape of rain, and again 
washed into the ocean, carrying with it more mineral 
substances. This operation has been going on for ages, 
so that the saline matter contained in the water of the 
ocean at the present time is about one-half ounce to the 
pound of water, and this amount will be slowiy increased 
as the water evaporates ; yet all the mineral matter 
washed-into the ocean does not remain in solution, but 
is slowly deposited upon the bottom and along the 
coasts. In small lakes which have no outlet, and are 
not moved by the tide, the water becomes stronger from 
the saline deposits than in the ocean. Salt Lake, in 
Utah Territory, has become a strong brine, nearly one- 
third of its whole weight consisting of saline matter, 
but this condition would sron disappear if an outlet 
could be provided. River water generally contains 
more or less organic matter, as well as mineral matter, 
and for this reason it is often unfitted for drinking or 
for cooking purposes ; but running water has in itself a 
certain purifying power, owing to the air which it holds 
in solution, so that in time it will become more pure 
still. In order to avoid danger of sickness from using 
river water for cooking or drinking, it should be filtered 
through charcoal and sand before using. 

As water strains through the soil or gravel into our 
17 



258 MINERALS AND GASES. 

wells, it dissolves more or less of the various mineral 
matters characteristic of the locality ; this matter, the- 
principal part of which is lime, salt and magnesia, unites 
with the water, and forms what we term hard water. 
If the water is obtained from a limestone locality, it 
will contain a large percentage of lime, and when 
boiled in our tea kettles, it produces a coating of fur on 
the sides and bottom of the kettle, and if this water is 
used continually, the coating of fur will be increased 
and gradually turned into a heavy solid limestone scale. 
When we put soap in this water, when either hot or 
cold, it curdles from uniting with the lime, and forms 
calcium oxide or lime soap, which is insoluble in water 
and floats upon the surface of it, but if a large amount 
of soap is used it will curdle and sink to the bottom of 
the water. Magnesia has about the same effect on 
water when dissolved in it as limesone has. A very 
minute amount of salt combined with these waters 
makes them still harder. 

As the world of water is inhabited, it has its atmos- 
phere, similar to the earth's atmosphere ; for water is 
composed of eight-ninths of oxygen and one-ninth of 
hydrogen by weight, so that the inhabitants of the 
world of water have an abundance of oxygen, even 
more than we have. Yet we could not live in the world 
of water, simply because the oxygen is combined with the 
hydrogen, and our lungs are not adapted to breathing 
them together, or to separate the oxygen from the 
hydrogen. The water fills our lungs, and we drown. 
Fish inhale oxygen from the water through the fine 
silky filaments of their gills. When a fish is drawn out 
of water, these fine filaments soon dry up and the fish 
is unable to breathe, although it has a more plentiful 
supply of atmosphere than it is accustomed to enjoy. 
Thus the fish dies in our atmosphere simply because 
it is too dry for its lungs, and \\q die in the w^ater simply 
because its atmosphere is too wet for our lungs. 



MINERALS AND GASES, 259 

Water contracts on cooling until it gets down to 39° 
Fahrenheit ; then it slowly expands until it reaches its 
freezing point, when it congeals and its crystals sud- 
denly shoot out at angles to each other ; and the harder 
it freezes the more it expands, until it congeals into ice. 
Although ice is only congealed water, yet it is lighter 
than water and swims on top of the water ; and as the 
surface of our rivers and ponds freezes, the ice fornis a 
blanket or covering over their surface and protects them 
from the cold atmosphere, and keeps the finny inhab- 
itants of the water warm and comfortable till spring ; 
then the warm sun soon dissolves it, or the spring flood 
floats it south to melt under a hotter sun. Were it not 
that ice is lighter than water, it would not swim on top 
and form a cover over the surface of the water, but 
would sink to the bottom as fast as it was formed, and 
our rivers and ponds would freeze solid to the bottom, 
killing all the fish and aquatic plants ; and even the 
sun of a hot summer could not melt such an immense 
mass of ice. Water seems a very yielding substance, 
but if we fall a short distance on to the water, and light 
flat on our belly, the pain in our stomach will convince 
us that water is not so yielding a substance as we 
thought it was. 

Water is one of the most unyielding substances in 
nature, and when confined in the hydraulic ram a few 
gallons may be made to lift tons of solid weight. An 
excess of water will destroy life by drowning, and a 
lack of water will cause a lingering and painful death 
from thirst. Thus w^e see the different effects of water. 

The uses of water are very diverse, for its properties 
fit it for a wonderful variety of uses in nature ; it is 
the common carrier of the world, and also the common 
scavenger of the world. Upon the bosom of the seas, 
lakes and rivers float the ships that conduct the com- 
merce of the world, which directs the flow of trade and 
wealth, decides the founding of cities and advancement 



260 MINERALS AND GASES. 

of nations ; upon its bosom floats the iron-clad navies 
of the world, which protect its commerce and dictate 
and uphold the rights of nations ; it propels the water- 
wheel, and thus becomes the grand motive-power of 
manufacture ; it washes down the mountain side, bear- 
ing with it mineral matter to fertilize the soil ; it comes 
in the clouds as rain and lays the dust in our streets, 
and sprinkles our gardens and puts new life into our 
vegetables and plants; it moistens our lips and quenches 
our thirst on a hot day, and flows through our body as 
blood, giving us fresh life and vigor 



COMBUSTION. 

Combustion is the destruction of substances by unit- 
ing with oxygen, which generally causes heat and 
light, but in many cases the heat generated is so light 
as not to be noticed by us, as is the case when wood 
rots or iron rusts, and in all cases of decay, fermenta- 
tion, etc. The only diff'erence between the combustion 
of the substances that decay, and the substance that is 
destroyed by fire, is that the oxygen unites with 
those destroyed by fire more rapidly and generates 
more heat ; and as we wish to cause more or less heat 
by the combustion of fuel in our stoves or furnaces, we 
raise the stack or chimney higher that we may have a 
good draft of air through the fire and supply oxygen 
to the fuel rapidly, which makes the combustion rapid 
and the heat more intense. 

All our fuels, wood, coal, oil, etc., consist mainly of 
carbon, and in order to ignite these fuels we elevate 
the heat of a small portion to the point of rapid union 
with oxygen, and that part in burning will give off" 
heat enough to support the combustion of the rest. 
Thus when making a fire we take paper or shavings, 
which expose a large surface to the action of oxygen, 



3fINERALS AND GASES. 261 

and by igniting these with a match they soon raise the 
required temperature to start the combustion of the 
chips or fine kindling-wood, and the heat from the 
wood will soon ignite the coal, and the oxygen of the 
air unites with the carbon of the coal, and continues 
the combustion until the carbon is exhausted. But if 
after the fuel has been ignited we close the damper of 
the stove, and shut off the supply of oxygen, the car- 
bon ceases to burn, and the coal smolders in the grate, 
and finally the fire goes out altogether. Carbon, even 
when ignited and in a state of combustion, will not 
remain so unless it is well supplied with oxygen. 

Carbon is most wisely fitted for fuel, since the product 
of its combustion is a gas ; were it a solid our fires 
would be choked, and we would have to remove as 
much ashes from our stove as we supplied fuel ; and in 
the case of a candle or lamp it would be still more 
annoying, as the solid product would fall around our 
rooms ; and were it fusible like lead or zinc, it would 
melt and run down through the grate and out upon 
our floors in a liquid mass. The flame from our fuel is 
burning gas, and a candle or lamp is a small gas-works, 
for their flame is the. same as that of a gas-burner. In 
a candle we have a little cupful of tallow or wax, melted 
by the heat of the flame above it, and the cup that holds 
it is formed by the ascending currents of cool air, which 
supplies the flame with oxygen, keeping the outside of 
the candle hard ; but should the wind blow the flame 
downward, this hard rim on the outside is melted, and 
the liquid tallow or wax runs down the side of the 
candle. The melted tallow or wax in this little cup is 
carried up through the small tubes of the wick by capil- 
lary attraction to the flame, and by the heat of the 
flame is converted into a gas, and becomes the flame in 
this way ; the flame is supported as long as there is 
a sufficient amount of tallow or wax to supply the gas. 

The flame of a candle is always hollow, and at the 



262 3IINERALS AND GASES. 

center of the flame, near the wick, the gas is formed by 
the heat of the flame around it. Part of this gas may- 
be conducted out of the flame by a small pipe, and 
burned at a little distance from the candle. The flame 
is hollow because there is no oxj^gen at its center, for 
the gas floats outward from the wick as it is formed, 
and comes in contact with the oxygen of the air and 
burns on the outside while more gas is formed inside. 
The flame is blue at the bottom, because there is so 
much oxygen at that point that the hydrogen and oxy- 
gen burn together and give little light ; and the flame 
near the top gets red because the carbon passes up from 
the wick and unites with the oxygen, and if too much 
carbon is supplied for the supply of oxygen, the carbon 
passes off at the top of the flame in a black smoke. 
The wick of a candle does not burn, but is merely 
charred by the heat of the flame, because the flame 
drives off' the oxygen from it, and protects it. If we 
blow out a candle quickly the gas still passes oft", and the 
candle may be immediately re-lit with an ignited match 
held at some distance from the wick ; but if we let the 
wick get cold, we must bring the flame of the match in 
contact w^ith the wick before we can ignite it. The 
tapering form of the flame is due to the currents of air 
that sweep up from all sides toward it. The candle 
must be snuffed because the flame follows the wick 
down as the tallow is consumed, and the long, charred 
wick would cool the blaze below the igniting point of 
the carbon and oxygen, and the carbonic gas would 
only be partly consumed. We do not snuff" our lamps, 
because the oil is in a liquid state, and it does not re- 
quire the heat of the flame to melt it before it can be 
drawn up the wick, and the flame does not pass down 
the wick and charr it. A lamp with a glass chimney 
produces a steadier and brighter flame than a lamp 
without a chimney would, because it confines the hot 
air and makes a draft of heated oxygen to feed the 



JflNERALS AND GASES. 263 

flame ; and we use the flat wick because it presents 
more surface to the action of the oxygen. When we 
first light our lamps, a film of moisture gathers on the 
inside of the chimney. This is caused by the moisture 
from the flame being condensed on the cold glass, for a 
pint of oil, when burned, will produce a full pint of 
water were it to be coiiTdensed. If we urge the flame 
of our lamps to the highest point when we first light 
them, the water will be condensed upon the chimney 
rapidly, and it will be expanded unevenly, and may be 
broken. To avoid this, the flame should be small at 
first, and be gradually increased to the proper size as 
the chimney is heated. 

Benzole, turpentine, tar, etc., contain an excess of 
-carbon, and not enough hydrogen to heat them to the 
igniting-point, so that, when burnt, they produce clouds 
of smoke and soot, and therefore cannot be used in our 
lamps to produce light. Alcohol contains an excess of 
hydrogen and little carbon ; hence it gives off great 
heat and little light, so that it is not adapted for use in 
our ordinary lamps for light, but is the best fuel for a 
lamp to be used with the blow-pipe used by jewelers, 
mineralogists, etc. In this case a current of air from 
the lungs is thrown across the flame just above the 
wick, and the heat of it is thrown against the object to 
\)e heated or melted, and the heat of the flame is also 
increased by the excess o^* the oxygen supplied to it 
from the lungs. In the center of this flame is a blue cone- 
shaped flame, which ends about the middle of the 
flame. Outside of this is a whiter and more luminous 
flame, which terminates a little nearer the point of 
the flame, and beyond this a pale yellow flame, termin- 
ating the point of the flame ; the blue flame, in the 
■center, is caused by the excess of oxygen from the blow- 
pipe burning the carbon and hydrogen together. The 
luminous flame contains carbon in excess, whic i being 
burnt, gives out light ; this is the hotest flame, and is, 



264 MINERALS AND GASES. 

therefore, called the reducing flame. The yellow, or 
outside flame, contains an excess of oxygen, and is, 
therefore, called the oxidizing flame. The oil lamp, or 
tallow candle, is also used with the blow-pipe, but the 
heat from them is not so intense, because they contain 
an excess of carbon. Blowing on a candle, or lamp, 
extinguishes it, because it lowers the heat of the flame 
below the igniting point of the gases, and in using the 
blow-pipe, it does not extinguish the flame, because we 
do not blow on the flame, but into it, for the nosel of the 
pipe is put into the flame just above the wick, where 
the heat of the flame is the most intense. 

Fires are put out by water partly because it lowers 
the heat of the flame, below the igniting point of the 
gases, and partlj^ because the water envelops the wood 
and shuts ofl' the air. If a person's clothing takes fire, 
the best way to extinguish it, is to wrap the person in 
a blanket, carpet, coat, or any thing that will shut out 
the oxygen and smother the fire. When a house takes 
fire, it can often be smothered, or made to extinguish 
itself, by closing up all the windows and doors, so as te 
shut off' the supply of oxygen. 



SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 

When considerable masses of iron are allowed to rust 
in a heap, a distinct elevation of temperature is often 
perceived. And if a heap of iron turnings are mois- 
tened with water, and mixed with a little cotton, or 
some greasy rags, and exposed to the air for a short 
time, the mass will take fire, spontaneously, and burn 
the cotton, or rags. Fresh-burnt charcoal will some- 
times absorb oxygen so rapidly as to become ignited. 
Heaps of fine coal and dirt, from coal mines^ wall often 
take fire from the heat of the sun ; this is caused by the 
decomposition of the iron pyrites, contained in the coal, 



MINERALS AND GASES. 265 

by the moisture and action of the air. Waste cot- 
ton, which has been used for wiping machinery, and is 
saturated with oil, will burst into a flame, if thrown in 
a heap, near a stove, or in any warm place ; this is 
because it absorbs oxygen rapidly from the air. 



BRONZING-. 

All bronze castings, such as statues, medals, etc., are 
liable to become tarnished, and loose their bright 
appearance ; to avoid this, and to renew them after 
they have become tarnished, it is usual to give them a 
coating of bronze. The bronzing of copper, or brass 
castings, may be done by several very simple methods. 

A very dark colored bronze may be made by using a 
little sulphuret of ammonia. The metal to be bronzed 
is first washed perfectly clean of all greasy substances, 
and then washed over with the solution, which should 
be diluted with a little water ; and the metal is then 
dried in a gentle heat ; and when dry, it is polished 
with a hard brush ; it should not be rubbed too hard, 
or with too hard a brush, or the pojish may be injured 
by it. 

A black bronze may also be imparted, by heating the 
castings in a closed box, or room, with sulphureted 
hydrogen gas. But this bronze is not so good as that 
produced by the sulphuret of ammonia, and the gas is 
highly injurious if inhaled. 

The green bronzes require a little more time than the 
black bronze, for they depend upon the formation of 
the green salt of copper upon the surface of the metal. 
A dilute solution of sal-ammonia, allowed to dry upon 
copper, will produce a green tint in a shorty time, but it 
is not very permanent. Castings steeped in a strong 
solution of common salt for several days, comes out 
coated with a beautiful bronze, which, if washed in 



266 MINERALS AND GASES. 

clear water and allowed to dry slowly, will last for a 
long time. A very beautiful green bronze, having the 
appearance of ancient bronze, may be produced by tak- 
ing a small portion of bleaching powder and placing it 
in the bottom of a dry vessel, and suspending the metal 
over it. The metal should be slightly heated before it 
is put into the vessel, and the vessel should be covered, 
and only enough air admitted to support the combus- 
tion of the powder. In a short time the metal will take 
on a green coating, the depth of which may be regu- 
lated by the quantity of the bleaching powder consumed 
or the time the metal is suspended in its fumes. 

The common bronze with a brownish tint may be 
produced by moistening the metal with a solution of 
nitric acid and water (after it has been well cleaned of 
all greasy matter), and then allowing it to dry. After 
it has been dried slowly it is subjected to gradual and 
equable heat, which turns the metal to a light brown, 
becoming darker the more heat is applied. 

Another very simple method of bronzing is to wash 
the metal to be bronzed, in a little alkali, to clean it 
from all wax or grease, and brush a little dry black lead 
over the metal and then heating it slowly, but not very 
hot. This process may be repeated until the desired 
tint is obtained ; and the black lead may either be ap- 
plied in the dry state, or it may be mixed into a thin 
paste with water and applied the same as stove polish. 

Another bronze solution consists of two parts of cop- 
per acetate and one part of sal-ammonia, dissolved in 
vinegar and filtered. This solution is diluted with 
water, and brushed or rubbed on the metal and allowed 
to dry, and the process repeated until the desired hue 
is obtained. The color of ancient bronze may be ob- 
tained by painting the bronze cast with a solution of 
three parts cream of tartar, one part of sal-ammonia, 
and six parts of common salt, and the mixture dissolved 
in hot water. This solution will arive to bronze a red- 



MINERALS AND GASES. 267 

dish color, and by adding to it eight parts of a solution 
of nitrate of copper, it will give a more dark-brown 
color. 

There are several other solutions for bronzing, but 
these are the principal ones that are used. In fact 
almost any of the acids, if diluted with water and sul- 
phur, form a bronze solution for copper and brass cast- 
ings ; and many of the metallic solutions, such as the 
weak acid solutions of platinum, gold, antimony, etc., 
will impart a dark color to the surface of brass and 
copper castings, if dipped in them. In all the bronz- 
ing processes with these solutions, the surface of the 
copper is converted into a sulphuret, and the success of 
the process depends a great deal upon the amount of 
copper the casting contains ; yet almost any of the 
ordinary brass can be bronzed by making the solution 
stronger and allowing more time in the process of 
bronzing. 

Bronze color is imparted to other castings besides 
those of brass and bronze, but is not done by corroding 
the surface of the metal as in bronzing castings that 
contain copper, but by painting, or by using a solution 
that holds copper in solution, and deposits it on the 
metal when dipped in it, as in the case where cast-iron 
is dipped in a solution of sulphate of copper, or muri- 
ate of copper, a thin film of copper is deposited upon 
the iron. After the castings have been dipped in the 
solution and sufficiently covered with copper, they are 
washed in clean water and dried by rubbing in saw- 
dust, and if it is desirable to have a very fine finish, 
they are next varnished. with a little common varnish. 

Cast-iron or other metals maybe painted in imitation 
of bronze of all colors, by first coating them with var- 
nish, and when that is nearly dry, dusting them with 
a metallic powder. When it is desirable to have the 
work clouded, the powder is put on with a dusting-bag, 
and when it is desirable to have the work striped in 



268 FUNERALS AND GASES. 

imitation of marble or other stone, it is done with a 
paint brush or with the finger. The metallic powder 
generally used for bronzing is mosaic gold, which can 
be procured of almost any shade or color ; and statues 
and ornaments of great beauty are made with it. Com- 
mon dry paint of any desired shade is also used for 
dusting the work, but it is not so enduring as the 
mosaic gold. 



ZINCING". 

Zincing or coating other metals with zinc, is done in 
different ways. If the metal to be coated is copper or 
bronze, they are generally coated by exposure to the 
fumes of zinc, but for iron, the zinc is used in solution. 
This solution or bath is made by dissolving metallic 
zinc in muriatic acid, and always having so much zinc 
in the acid that some of it will remain undissolved. 
The iron to be coated is dipped in this bath and allowed 
to remain for a short time, and when it is taken out of 
the bath, it is perfectly coated with zinc. Another 
solution is made by dissolving zinc in sulphuric acid ; 
this solution, by evaporation, yields crystals of sulphate 
of zinc. The solution for depositing is made by dis- 
solving two pounds of this sulphate in one gallon of 
water; this sulphate is sold in the market all ready 
for use, and when only used in small quantities, it is 
more economical to bay it than to make it. This solu- 
tion cannot be used for depositing the zinc without the 
aid of a battery, but the zinc is very easily deposited 
from it with the aid of a small battery, and may be 
deposited upon black-leaded surfaces, in the same man- 
ner as copper, but articles formed by depositing zinc 
upon black lead are very brittle, from the crystalline 
character of the zinc, unless a powerful battery is em- 
ployed, and the article on which the deposit is made is 



MINERALS AND GASES. 269 

kept in constant motion, so as to give the zinc a more 
fibrous structure. Zinc is principally applied as a 
coating upon iron to protect it from rusting, and is much 
used for coating sheet-iron, water pipes and small cast- 
ings that are exposed to water, such as those used for 
washing machines, clothes wringers, etc. Iron, when 
coated with zinc, is called galvanized iron. 



BLACKING- IRON CASTING-S. 

For common work, the blacking generally used is 
common coal tar ; and for the finer work, Japan varnish 
is used ; and for work that is exposed to the. heat of a 
fire, black lead, moistened with a little water or benzole, 
is used, as in the common stove blacking. But stoves 
that are exposed to the weather, or sample-stoves in 
warehouses, should be blacked with black varnish, and 
the varnish dusted with dry black lead, and rubbed 
dry with the hard brush ; this gives a beautiful polish, 
and one that will not rust easily ; and if it does get 
slightly rusted it can easily be rubbed off with the 
brush, and the polish will look as fresh as new. Fine 
ornamental castings are heated to the blue annealing 
heat, and then coated with black copal varnish, and 
dried at the same degree of heat, Th^ heat takes off 
the gloss of the varnish, but it may easily be returned 
by giving the work another very light coat and heating 
it gently. For enameling mantel and grate fronts, an 
enamel varnish is used that does not lose its gloss when 
heated to the highest heat of the enameling oven, and 
gives a very fine finish of any desired color. A paint 
that imparts a rich lead color to iron is made by heating 
the oxide of lead in an iron pot, and stirring into it 
when hot some flour of sulphur, and mixing with oil ; 
this paint may be applied when cold, and gives a fine 
lead color, which is very lasting. 



270 IIINERALS AND GASES. 

The permanent coating of one metal by another is 
generally done by the electric process, or water-gilding 
process ; but these processes of coating metal form a 
separate branch of business from the foundry business, 
and are but little practiced by foundrymen. Several 
books have been published upon electro-plating and 
water-gilding, and they can be obtained from any of 
the publishing houses that publish scientific books, by 
any one that may want a knowledge of that branch of 
business. 



RECIPES FOR WORKING- STEEL. 



FOR TEMPERING. 

Six quarts of soft water, two ounces of pulverized 
corrosive sublimate, and two handsful of common salt 
make a good solution for tempering. 

ANOTHER. 

Two ounces saltpetre, two ounces sal-ammonia, two 
ounces alum, and one pound and a half of common salt, 
and the whole dissolved in three gallons of soft water, 
make a good tempering solution. 

Steel that is very high, and cannot be tempered in 
water solutions, may be tempered by heating it to a 
cherry red, and sticking it in the ground or sand to cool. 

FOR WELDING. 

Two ounces copperas, one ounce saltpetre, six ounces 
common salt, one ounce of black oxide of manganese, 
one ounce prussiate of potash ; the whole to be pulver- 
ized and mixed with three pounds of welding sand. 

TO ANNEAL STEEL. 

Steel may be annealed and made so soft that it can 
almost be shaved with a knife by heating it to a cherry 



MINERALS AND GASES. 271 

red, and laying it between two pieces of yellow poplar 
wood, and bolting the wood together so as to exclude 
all the air from it. It should be left in the wood until 
perfectly cold. 

TEMPERING DRILLS, ETC. 

To prevent steel taps, drills, etc., from springing 
when tempered, the steel sliould be forged to the de- 
sired shape and then heated to a cherry-red and an- 
nealed in charcoal or ashes before the tool is turned or 
finished. After it has been annealed it should not be 
straightened by hammering, for the springing of the 
steel, when it is being tempered, is all caused by its 
being hammered in one spot more than another, which 
causes the crystals to be more compact in spots, and 
when the steel is heated they equalize, which warps 
the steel. 

DRILLING HARD IRON. 

Hard iron or steel may be drilled by using turpen- 
tine and camphor-gum for keeping the drill cool. 



CEMENT. 

In stopping holes in castings, or for covering scars, a 
cement may be made of equal parts of gum-arabic, 
plaster-of-Paris and iron filings, and if a little finely 
pulverized white glass be added to the mixture, it will 
make it still harder. This mixture forms a very hard 
cement that will resist the action of fire and water. It 
should be kept in its dry state and mixed with a little 
water when wanted for use. 

A cement for making joints in water and steam-pipe, 
or in any work where two pieces of metal are joined 
together, and it is desirable to make a perfectly tight 
joint, may be used, made of iron filings or turnings 
mixed with sal-ammonia. The proportion of sal-ammo- 



272 MINERALS AND GASES. 

nia is very small ; only about a half pound is used to 
fifty pounds of filings. This cement is mixed when 
wanted for use, and is driven into the joint with a cold 
chisel or other tool. 



The best kind of black-lead crucibles can be obtained 
from the Jersey City Crucible Manufacturing Company, 
at Jersey City, N. J. 



A first-class black-lead crucible is also made by the \ 
Phoenix Crucible Manufacturing Company of Taunton, 

Mass. 



FEASSE & CO., 
62 CHATHAM STREET, NEW YORK, 

ARE AGENTS FOR THE 

PATENT PLUMBAGO CRUCIBLE COMPANY, 

Batter sea Works, London, England. 

This company have constantly on hand a general 
assortment of black-lead and clay crucibles of all shapes 
and sizes, and they also have a general assortment of 
all the fixtures used by assayers, such as — 

Portable Furnaces, Enameling Furnaces, Furnaces 
for Dental Work, and Retorts, Scorifiers, Roasting 
Dishes, Muffles, Skittle Pots, and a general assortment 
of Assay Crucibles especially adapted for the assaying 
of copper, tin, lead, iron, gold, etc. 

Either of the above companies will furnish a price- 
list of their goods to any person wishing to purchase, 
upon application to them. 

SEP -1 I9'<3 



